lectures on the industrial revolution in england-第13部分

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expense　of　an　enormous　waste　of　human　life　and　labour；　which　might　be　avoided　by　regulation。　But　here　we　must　distinguish　between　competition　in　production　and　competition　in　distribution；　a　difference　recognised　in　modern　legislation；　which　has　widened　the　sphere　of　contract　in　the　one　direction；　while　it　has　narrowed　it　in　the　other。　For　the　struggle　of　men　to　outvie　one　another　in　production　is　beneficial　to　the　community；　their　struggle　over　the　division　of　the　joint　produce　is　not。　The　stronger　side　will　dictate　its　own　terms；　and　as　a　matter　of　fact；　in　the　early　days　of　competition　the　capitalists　used　all　their　power　to　oppress　the　labourers；　and　drove　down　wages　to　starvation　point。　This　kind　of　competition　has　to　be　checked；　there　is　no　historical　instance　of　its　having　lasted　long　without　being　modified　either　by　combination　or　legislation；　or　both。　In　England　both　remedies　are　in　operation；　the　former　through　Trades　Unions；　the　latter　through　factory　legislation。　In　the　past　other　remedies　were　applied。　It　is　this　desire　to　prevent　the　evils　of　competition　that　affords　the　true　explanation　of　the　fixing　of　wages　by　Justices　of　the　Peace；　which　seemed　to　Ricardo　a　remnant　of　the　old　system　of　tyranny　in　the　interests　of　the　strong。　Competition；　we　have　now　learnt；　is　neither　good　nor　evil　in　itself；　it　is　a　force　which　has　to　be　studied　and　controlled；　it　may　be　compared　to　a　stream　whose　strength　and　direction　have　to　be　observed；　that　embankments　may　be　thrown　up　within　which　it　may　do　its　work　harmlessly　and　beneficially。　But　at　the　period　we　are　considering　it　came　to　be　believed　in　as　a　gospel；　and；　the　idea　of　necessity　being　superadded；　economic　laws　deduced　from　the　assumption　of　universal　unrestricted　competition　were　converted　into　practical　precepts；　from　which　it　was　regarded　as　little　short　of　immoral　to　depart。　　　　　Coming　to　the　facts　of　the　Industrial　Revolution；　the　first　thing　that　strikes　us　is　the　far　greater　rapidity　which　marks　the　growth　of　population。　Before　1751　the　largest　decennial　increase；　so　far　as　we　can　calculate　from　our　imperfect　materials；　was　3　per　cent。　For　each　of　the　next　three　decennial　periods　the　increase　was　6　per　cent。；　then　between　1781　and　1791　it　was　9　per　cent。；　between　1791　and　1801；　11　per　cent。；　between　1801　and　1811；　14　per　cent。；　between　1811　and　182l；　18　per　cent。　This　is　the　highest　figure　ever　reached　in　England；　for　since　1815　a　vast　emigration　has　been　always　tending　to　moderate　it；　between　1815　and　1880　over　eight　millions　（including　Irish）　have　left　our　shores。　But　for　this　our　normal　rate　of　increase　would　be　16　or　18　instead　of　12　per　cent。　In　every　decade。　　　　　Next　we　notice　the　relative　and　positive　decline　in　the　agricultural　population。　In　1811　it　constituted　35　per　cent。　of　the　whole　population　of　Great　Britain；　in　1821；　33　per　cent。；　in　1831；　28　per　cent。　And　at　the　same　time　its　actual　numbers　have　decreased。　In　1831　there　were　1；243；057　adult　males　employed　in　agriculture　in　Great　Britain；　in　1841　there　were　1；207；989。　In　1851　the　whole　number　of　persons　engaged　in　agriculture　in　England　was　2；084；153；　in　1861　it　was　2；010；454；　and　in　1871　it　was　1；657；138。　Contemporaneously　with　this　change；　the　centre　of　density　of　population　has　shifted　from　the　Midlands　to　the　North；　there　are　at　the　present　day　458　persons　to　the　square　mile　in　the　counties　north　of　the　Trent；　as　against　312　south　of　the　Trent。　And　we　have　lastly　to　remark　the　change　in　the　relative　population　of　England　and　Ireland。　Of　the　total　population　of　the　three　kingdoms；　Ireland　had　in　1821　32　per　cent。；　in　1881　only　14。6　per　cent。　　　　　An　agrarian　revolution　plays　as　large　part　in　the　great　industrial　change　of　the　end　of　the　eighteenth　century　as　does　the　revolution　in　manufacturing　industries；　to　which　attention　is　more　usually　directed。　Our　next　inquiry　must　therefore　be：　What　were　the　agricultural　changes　which　led　to　this　noticeable　decrease　in　the　rural　population？　The　three　most　effective　causes　were：　the　destruction　of　the　common…field　system　of　cultivation；　the　enclosure；　on　a　large　scale；　of　common　and　waste　lands；　and　the　consolidation　of　small　'farms　into　large。　We　have　already　seen　that　while　between　1710　and　1760　some　300；000　acres　were　enclosed；　between　1760　and　1843　nearly　7；000；000　underwent　the　same　process。　Closely　connected　with　the　enclosure　system　was　the　substitution　of　large　for　small　farms。　In　the　first　half　of　the　century　Laurence；　though　approving　of　consolidation　from　an　economic　point　of　view；　had　thought　that　the　odium　attaching　to　an　evicting　landlord　would　operate　as　a　strong　check　upon　it。　But　these　scruples　had　now　disappeared。　Eden　in　1795　notices　how　constantly　the　change　was　effected；　often　accompanied　by　the　conversion　of　arable　to　pasture；　and　relates　how　in　a　certain　Dorsetshire　village　he　found　two　farms　where　twenty　years　ago　there　had　been　thirty。　The　process　went　on　uninterruptedly　into　the　present　century。　Cobbett；　writing　in　1826；　says：　'In　the　parish　of　Burghclere　one　single　farmer　holds；　under　Lord　Carnarvon；　as　one　farm；　the　lands　that　those　now　living　remember　to　have　formed　fourteen　farms；　bringing　up　in　a　respectable　way　fourteen　families。'　The　consolidation　of　farms　reduced　the　number　of　farmers；　while　the　enclosures　drove　the　labourers　off　the　land；　as　it　became　impossible　for　them　to　exist　without　their　rights　of　pasturage　for　sheep　and　geese　on　common　lands。　　　　　Severely；　however；　as　these　changes　bore　upon　the　rural　population；　they　wrought；　without　doubt；　distinct　improvement　from　an　agricultural　point　of　view。　They　meant　the　substitution　of　scientific　for　unscientific　culture。　'It　has　been　found；'　says　Laurence；　'by　long　experience；　that　common　or　open　fields　are　great　hindrances　to　the　public　good；　and　to　the　honest　improvement　which　every　one　might　make　of　his　own。'　Enclosures　brought　an　extension　of　arable　cultivation　and　the　tillage　of　inferior　soils；　and　in　small　farms　of　40　to　100　acres；　where　the　land　was　exhausted　by　repeated　corn　crops；　the　farm　buildings　of　clay　and　mud　walls　and　three…fourths　of　the　estate　often　saturated　with　water；　consolidation　into　farms　of　100　to　500　acres　meant　rotation　of　crops；　leases　of　nineteen　years；　and　good　farm　buildings。　The　period　was　one　of　great　agricultural　advance；　the　breed　of　cattle　was　improved；　rotation　of　crops　was　generally　introduced；　the　steam…plough　was　invented；　agricultural　societies　were　instituted。　In　one　respect　alone　the　change　was　injurious。　In　consequence　of　the　high　prices　of　corn　which　prevailed　during　the　French　war；　some　of　the　finest　permanent　pastures　were　broken　up。　Still；　in　spite　of　this；　it　was　said　in　1813　that　during　the　previous　ten　years　agricultural　produce　had　increased　by　one…fourth；　and　this　was　an　increase　upon　a　great　increase　in　the　preceding　generation。　　　　　Passing　to　manufactures；　we　find　here　the　all…prominent　fact　to　be　the　substitution　of　the　factory　for　the　domestic　system；　the　consequence　of　the　mechanical　discoveries　of　the　time。　Four　great　inventions　altered　the　character　of　the　cotton　manufacture；　the　spinning…jenny；　patented　by　Hargreaves　in　1770；　the　waterframe；　invented　by　Arkwright　the　year　before；　Crompton's　mule　introduced　in　1779；　and　the　self…acting　mule；　first　invented　by　Kelly　in　1792；　but　not　brought　into　use　till　Roberts　improved　it　in　1825。　None　of　these　by　themselves　would　have　revolutionised　the　industry。　But　in　1769…the　year　in　which　Napoleon　and　Wellington　were　born…James　Watt　took　out　his　patent　for　the　steam…engine。　Sixteen　years　later　it　was　applied　to　the　cotton　manufacture。　In　1785　Boulton　and　Watt　made　an　engine　for　a　cotton…mill　at　Papplewick　in　Notts；　and　in　the　same　year　Arkwright's　patent　expired。　These　two　facts　taken　together　mark　the　introduction　of　the　factory　system。　But　the　most　famous　invention　of　all；　and　the　most　fatal　to　domestic　industry；　the　power…loom；　though　also　patented　by　Cartwright　in　1785；　did　not　come　into　use　for　several　years；　and　till　the　power…loom　was　introduced　the　workman　was　hardly　injured。　At　first；　in　fact；　machinery　raised　the　wages　of　spinners　and　weavers　owing　to　the　great　prosperity　it　brought　to　the　trade。　In　fifteen　years　the　cotton　trade　trebled　itself；　from　1788　to　1803　has　been　called　its　'golden　age〃。　for；　before　the　power…loom　but　after　the　introduction　of　the　mule　and　other　mechanical　improvements　by　which　for　the　first　time　yarn　sufficiently　fine　for　muslin　and　a　variety　of　other　fabrics　was　spun；　the　demand　became　such　that　'old　barns；　cart…houses；　out…buildings　of　all　descriptions　were　repaired；　windows　broke　through　the　old　blank　walls；　and　all　fitted　up　for　loom…shops；　new　weavers'　cottages　with　loom…shops　arose　in　every　direction；　every　family　bringing　home　weekly　from　40　to　12O　shillings　per　week。'　At　a　later　date；　the　condition　of　the　workman　was　very　different。　Meanwhile；　the　iron　industry　had　been　equally　revolutionised　by　the　invention　of　smelting　by　pit…coal　brought　into　use　between　1740　and　1750；　and　by　the　application　in　1788　of　the　steam…engine　to　blast　furnaces。　In　the　eight　years　which　followed　this　later　date；　the　amount　of　iron　manufactured　nearly　doubled　itself。　　　　　A　further　growth　of　the　factory　system　took　place　independent　of　machinery；　and　owed　its　origin　to　the　expansion　of　trade；　an　expansion　which　was　itself　due　to　the　great　advance　made　at　this　time　in　the　means　of　communication。　The　canal　system　was　being　rapidly　developed　throughout　the　country。　In　1777　the　Grand　Trunk　canal；　96　miles　in　length；　connecting　the　Trent　and　Mersey；　was　finished；　Hull　and　Liverpool　were　connected　by　one　canal　while　another　connected　them　both　with　Bristol；　and　in　1792；　the　Grand　Junction　canal；　90　miles　in　length；　made　a　water…way　from　London　through　Oxford　to　the　chief　midland　towns。　Some　years　afterwards；　the　roads　were　greatly　improved　under　Telford　and　Macadam；　between　1818　and　1829　more　than　a　thousand　additional　miles　of　turnpike　road　were　constructed；　and　the　next　year；　1830；　saw　the　opening　of　the　first　railroad。　These　improved　means　of　communication　caused　an　extraordinary　increase　in　commerce；　and　to　secure　a　sufficient　supply　of　goods　it　became　the　interest　of　the　merchants　to　collect　weavers　around　them　in　great　numbers；　to　get　looms　together　in　a　workshop；　an