lectures on the industrial revolution in england-第14部分

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e　merchants　to　collect　weavers　around　them　in　great　numbers；　to　get　looms　together　in　a　workshop；　and　to　give　out　the　warp　themselves　to　the　workpeople。　To　these　latter　this　system　meant　a　change　from　independence　to　dependence；　at　the　beginning　of　the　century　the　report　of　a　committee　asserts　that　the　essential　difference　between　the　domestic　and　the　factory　system　is；　that　in　the　latter　the　work　is　done　'by　persons　who　have　no　property　in　the　goods　they　manufacture。'　Another　direct　consequence　of　this　expansion　of　trade　was　the　regular　recurrence　of　periods　of　over…production　and　of　depression；　a　phenomenon　quite　unknown　under　the　old　system；　and　due　to　this　new　form　of　production　on　a　large　scale　for　a　distant　market。　　　　　These　altered　conditions　in　the　production　of　wealth　necessarily　involved　an　equal　revolution　in　its　distribution。　In　agriculture　the　prominent　fact　is　an　enormous　rise　in　rents。　Up　to　1795；　though　they　had　risen　in　some　places；　in　others　they　had　been　stationary　since　the　Revolution。　But　between　1790　and　1833；　according　to　Porter；　they　at　least　doubled。　In　Scotland；　the　rental　of　land；　which　in　1795　had　amounted　to　*2；000；000；　had　risen　in　1815　to　*5；27　8；685。　A　farm　in　Essex；　which　before　1793　had　been　rented　at　10s。　an　acre；　was　let　in　1812　at　50s。；　though；　six　years　after；　this　had　fallen　again　to　35s。　In　Berks　and　Wilts；　farms　which　in　1790　were　let　at　14s。；　were　let　in　1810　at　70s。；　and　in　1820　at　50s。　Much　of　this　rise；　doubtless；　was　due　to　money　invested　in　improvements…the　first　Lord　Leicester　is　said　to　have　expended　*400；000　on　his　property…but　it　was　far　more　largely　the　effect　of　the　enclosure　system；　of　the　consolidation　of　farms；　and　of　the　high　price　of　corn　during　the　French　war。　Whatever　may　have　been　its　causes；　however；　it　represented　a　great　social　revolution；　a　change　in　the　balance　of　political　power　and　in　the　relative　position　of　classes。　The　farmers　shared　in　the　prosperity　of　the　landlords；　for　many　of　them　held　their　farms　under　beneficial　leases；　and　made　large　profits　by　them。　In　consequence；　their　character　completely　changed；　they　ceased　to　work　and　live　with　their　labourers；　and　became　a　distinct　class。　The　high　prices　of　the　war　time　thoroughly　demoralised　them；　for　their　wealth　then　increased　so　fast；　that　they　were　at　a　loss　what　to　do　with　it。　Cobbett　has　described　the　change　in　their　habits；　the　new　food　and　furniture；　the　luxury　and　drinking；　which　were　the　consequences　of　more　money　coming　into　their　hands　than　they　knew　how　to　spend。　Meanwhile；　the　effect　of　all　these　agrarian　changes　upon　the　condition　of　the　labourer　was　an　exactly　opposite　and　most　disastrous　one。　He　felt　all　the　burden　of　high　prices；　while　his　wages　were　steadily　falling；　and　he　had　lost　his　common…rights。　It　is　from　this　period；　viz。；　the　beginning　of　the　present　century；　that　the　alienation　between　farmer　and　labourer　may　be　dated。　　　　　Exactly　analogous　phenomena　appeared　in　the　manufacturing　world。　The　new　class　of　great　capitalist　employers　made　enormous　fortunes；　they　took　little　or　no　part　personally　in　the　work　of　their　factories；　their　hundreds　of　workmen　were　individually　unknown　to　them；　and　as　a　consequence；　the　old　relations　between　masters　and　men　disappeared；　and　a　'cash　nexus'　was　substituted　for　the　human　tie。　The　workmen　on　their　side　resorted　to　combination；　and　Trades…Unions　began　a　fight　which　looked　as　if　it　were　between　mortal　enemies　rather　than　joint　producers。　　　　　The　misery　which　came　upon　large　sections　of　the　working　people　at　this　epoch　was　often；　though　not　always；　due　to　a　fall　in　wages；　for；　as　I　said　above；　in　some　industries　they　rose。　But　they　suffered　likewise　from　the　conditions　of　labour　under　the　factory　system；　from　the　rise　of　prices；　especially　from　the　high　price　of　bread　before　the　repeal　of　the　corn…laws；　and　from　those　sudden　fluctuations　of　trade；　which；　ever　since　production　has　been　on　a　large　scale；　have　exposed　them　to　recurrent　periods　of　bitter　distress。　The　effects　of　the　industrial　Revolution　prove　that　free　competition　may　produce　wealth　without　producing　well…being。　We　all　know　the　horrors　that　ensued　in　England　before　it　was　restrained　by　legislation　and　combination。

IX。　The　Growth　of　Pauperism

　　　　Malthus　tells　us　that　his　book　was　suggested　by　Godwin's　Inquiry；　but　it　was　really　prompted　by　the　rapid　growth　of　pauperism　which　Malthus　saw　around　him；　and　the　book　proved　the　main　influence　which　determined　the　reform　of　the　English　Poor　Laws。　The　problem　of　pauperism　came　upon　men　in　its　most　terrible　form　between　1795　and　1834。　The　following　statistics　will　illustrate　its　growth：

　Year　Population　　　　Poor…rate　　　　　　　　　　Per　head　of　Population　　1760　7；000；000　　　　　*1；250；000　　　　　　　　　　　　　　or　3s。　7d。　　1784　8；000；000　　　　　2；000；000　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　or　5s。　0d。　　1803　9；216；000　　　　　4；077；000　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　or　8s。　11d。　　1818　11；876；000　　　　7；870；000　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　or　13s。　3d。

This　was　the　highest　rate　ever　reached。　But　really　to　understand　the　nature　of　the　problem　we　must　examine　the　previous　history　of　pauperism；　its　causes　in　different　periods；　and　the　main　influences　which　determined　its　increase。　　　　　Prejudices　have　arisen　against　Political　Economy　because　it　seemed　to　tell　men　to　follow　their　self…interest　and　to　repress　their　instincts　of　benevolence。　Individual　self…interest　makes　no　provision　for　the　poor；　and　to　do　so　other　motives　and　ideas　must　take　its　place；　hence　the　idea　that　Political　Economy　taught　that　no　such　provision　should　be　made。　Some　of　the　old　economists　did　actually　say　that　people　should　be　allowed　to　die　in　the　street。　Yet　Malthus；　with　all　his　hatred　of　the　Poor　Law；　thought　that　'the　evil　was　now　so　deeply　seated；　and　relief　given　by　the　Poor　Laws　so　widely　extended；　that　no　man　of　humanity　could　venture　to　propose　their　immediate　abolition。'　The　assumed　cruelty　of　political　economy　arises　from　a　mistaken　conception　of　its　province；　and　from　that　confusion　of　ideas　to　which　I　have　before　alluded；　which　turned　economic　laws　into　practical　precepts；　and　refused　to　allow　for　the　action　of　other　motives　by　their　side。　What　we　now　see　to　be　required　is　not　the　repression　of　the　instincts　of　benevolence；　but　their　organisation。　To　make　benevolence　scientific　is　the　great　problem　of　the　present　age。　Men　formerly　thought　that　the　simple　direct　action　of　the　benevolent　instincts　by　means　of　self…denying　gifts　was　enough　to　remedy　the　misery　they　deplored；　now　we　see　that　not　only　thought　but　historical　study　is　also　necessary。　Both　to　understand　the　nature　of　pauperism　and　to　discover　its　effectual　remedies；　we　must　investigate　its　earlier　history。　But　in　doing　this　we　should　take　to　heart　two　warnings：　first；　not　to　interpret　medieval　statutes　by　modern　ideas；　and　secondly；　not　to　assume　that　the　causes　of　pauperism　have　always　been　the　same。　　　　　The　history　of　the　Poor　Laws　divides　itself　into　three　epochs；　from　1349　to　1601；　from　1601　to　1782；　and　from　1782　to　1834。　Now；　what　was　the　nature　of　pauperism　in　medieval　society；　and　what　were　then　the　means　of　relieving　it？　Certain　characteristics　are　permanent　in　all　society；　and　thus　in　medieval　life　as　elsewhere　there　was　a　class　of　impotent　poor；　who　were　neither　able　to　support　themselves　nor　had　relatives　to　support　them。　This　was　the　only　form　of　pauperism　in　the　early　beginnings　of　medieval　society；　and　it　was　provided　for　as　follows。　The　community　was　then　broken　up　into　groups　…　the　manor；　the　guild；　the　family；　the　Church　with　its　hospitals；　and　each　group　was　responsible　for　the　maintenance　of　all　its　members；　by　these　means　all　classes　of　poor　were　relieved。　In　the　towns　the　craft　and　religious　guilds　provided　for　their　own　members；　large　estates　in　land　were　given　to　the　guilds；　which　'down　to　the　Reformation　formed　an　organised　administration　of　relief'　（'the　religious　guilds　were　organised　for　the　relief　of　distress　as　well　as　for　conjoint　and　mutual　prayer'；）　…　while　outside　the　guilds　there　were　the　churches；　the　hospitals；　and　the　monasteries。　The　'settled　poor'　in　towns　were　relieved　by　the　guilds；　in　the　country　by　the　lords　of　the　manor　and　the　beneficed　clergy。　'Every　manor　had　its　constitution；'　says　Professor　Stubbs；　and；　referring　to　manumission；　he　adds；　'the　native　lost　the　privilege　of　maintenance　which　he　could　claim　of　his　lord。'　Among　what　were　called　'the　vagrant　poor'　there　were　the　professional　beggars；　who　were　scarcely　then　considered　what　we　should　now　call　paupers；　and　'the　valiant　labourers'　wandering　only　in　search　of　work。　Who　then　were　the　paupers？　In　the　towns　there　were　the　craftsmen；　who　could　not　procure　admission　into　a　guild。　In　the　country　there　was　the　small　class　of　landless　labourers　nominally　free。　It　is　a　great　law　of　social　development　that　the　movement　from　slavery　to　freedom　is　also　a　movement　from　security　to　insecurity　of　maintenance。　There　is　a　close　connection　between　the　growth　of　freedom　and　the　growth　of　pauperism；　it　is　scarcely　too　much　to　say　that　the　latter　is　the　price　we　pay　for　the　former。　The　first　Statute　that　is　in　any　sense　a　Poor　Law　was　enacted　at　a　time　when　the　emancipation　of　the　serfs　was　proceeding　rapidly。　This　is　the　Statute　of　Labourers；　made　in　1349；　it　has　nothing　to　do　with　the　maintenance　of　the　poor'。　Its　object　was　to　repress　their　vagrancy。　　　　　This　Statute　has　been　variously　interpreted。　According　to　some；　it　was　simply　an　attempt　of　the　landowners　to　force　the　labourers　to　take　the　old　wages　of　the　times　before　the　Plague。　Others　object；　with　Brentano；　to　this　interpretation；　and　believe　that　it　was　not　an　instance　of　class　legislation；　but　merely　expressed　the　medieval　idea　that　prices　should　be　determined　by　what　was　thought　reasonable　and　not　by　competition；　for　this　same　Statute　regulates　the　prices　of　provisions　and　almost　everything　which　was　sold　at　the　time。　Probably　Brentano　is　in　the　main　right。　It　is　true　that　the　landowners　did　legislate　with　the　knowledge　that　the　Statute　would　be　to　their　own　advantage；　but　the　law　is　none　the　less　in　harmony　with　all　the　ideas　of　the　age。　The　Statute　affected　the　labourer　in　two　directions：　it　fixed　his　wages；　and　it　prevented　him　from　migrating。　It　was　followed　by　the　Statute　of　1388；　which　is　sometimes　called　the　beginning　of　the　English　Poor