lectures on the industrial revolution in england-第15部分

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It　was　followed　by　the　Statute　of　1388；　which　is　sometimes　called　the　beginning　of　the　English　Poor　Law。　We　here　find　the　first　distinction　between　the　impotent　and　the　able…bodied　poor。　This　law　decreed　that　if　their　neighbours　would　not　provide　for　the　poor；　they　were　to　seek　maintenance　elsewhere　in　the　hundred；　no　one　is　considered　responsible　for　them；　it　is　assumed　that　the　people　of　the　parish　will　support　them。　Here　too　we　catch　the　first　glimpse　of　a　law　of　settlement　in　the　provision　that　no　labourer　or　pauper　shall　wander　out　of　his　hundred　unless　he　carry　a　letter…patent　with　him。　　　　　No　exact　date　can　be　assigned　to　the　growth　of　able…bodied　pauperism。　It　was　the　result　of　gradual　social　changes；　and　of　the　inability　to　understand　them。　Medieval　legislators　could　not　grasp　the　necessity　for　the　mobility　of　labour；　nor　could　they　see　that　compulsory　provision　for　the　poor　was　essential；　though　the　Statute　of　l388　shows　that　the　bond　between　lord　and　dependent　was　snapped；　and　security　for　their　maintenance　in　this　way　already　at　an　end。　The　Church　and　private　charity　were　deemed　sufficient；　though　it　is　true　that　laws　were　passed　to　prevent　the　alienation　of　funds　destined　for　the　poor。　And　with　regard　to　the　mobility　of　labour；　we　must　remember　that　the　vagrancy　of　the　times　did　not　imply　the　distress　of　the　labourers；　but　their　prosperity。　The　scarcity　of　labour　allowed　of　high　wages；　and　the　vagrant　labourer　of　the　time　seems　never　to　have　been　satisfied；　but　always　wandering　in　search　of　still　higher　wages。　The　stability　of　medieval　society　depended　on　the　fixity　of　all　its　parts；　as　that　of　modern　society　is　founded　on　their　mobility。　The　Statutes　afford　evidence　that　high　wages　and　the　destruction　of　old　ties　did　in　fact　lead　to　disorder；　robbery　and　violence；　and　by　and　by　we　find　the　condition　of　the　labourer　reversed；　in　the　next　period　he　is　a　vagrant；　because　he　cannot　find　work。　　　　　In　the　sixteenth　century　pauperism　was　becoming　a　really　serious　matter。　If　we　ask；　What　were　its　causes　then；　and　what　the　remedies　proposed；　we　shall　find　that　at　the　beginning　of　the　century　a　great　agrarian　revolution　was　going　on；　during　which　pauperism　largely　increased。　Farms　were　consolidated；　and　arable　converted　into　pasture；　in　consequence；　where　two　hundred　men　had　lived　there　were　now　only　two　or　three　herdsmen。　There　was　no　employment　for　the　dispossessed　farmers；　who　became　simple　vagabonds；　'valiant　beggars；'　until　later　they　were　absorbed　into　the　towns　by　the　increase　of　trade。　A　main　cause　of　the　agrarian　changes　was　the　dissolution　of　monasteries；　though　it　was　one　that　acted　only　indirectly；　by　the　monastic　properties　passing　into　the　hands　of　new　men　who　did　not　hesitate　to　evict　without　scruple。　About　the　same　time　the　prices　of　provisions　rose　through　the　influx　of　the　precious　metals　and　the　debasement　of　the　coinage。　And　while　the　prices　of　corn　in　1541…82　rose　240　per　cent　as　compared　with　the　past　one　hundred　and　forty　years；　wages　rose　only　160　per　cent。　In　this　fact　we　discover　a　second　great　cause　of　the　pauperism　of　the　time；　just　as　at　the　end　of　the　eighteenth　century　we　find　wages　the　last　to　rise；　and　the　labouring　man　the　greatest　sufferer　from　increased　prices。　As　regards　the　growth　of　pauperism　in　towns；　the　main　cause　may　be　found　in　the　confiscation　of　the　estates　of　the　guilds　by　the　Protector　Somerset。　These　guilds　had　been　practically　friendly　societies；　and　depended　for　their　funds　upon　their　landed　properties。　　　　　And　how　did　statesmen　then　deal　with　these　phenomena？　The　legislation　of　the　age　about　'vagabonds'　is　written　in　blood。　The　only　remedy　suggested　was　to　punish　the　vagrant　by　cruel　tortures…by　whipping　and　branding。　Even　death　was　resorted　to　after　a　second　or　third　offence；　and　though　these　penalties　proved　very　ineffectual；　the　system　was　not　abandoned　till　the　law　of　43　Elizabeth　recognised　that　punishment　had　failed　as　a　remedy。　The　other　class　of　paupers；　the　impotent　poor；　had　been　directed　by　a　Statute　of　Richard　II　to　beg　within　a　certain　limited　area；　in　the　reigns　of　Edward　VI　and　Elizabeth　the　necessity　of　compulsory　provision　for　this　class　of　poor　slowly　dawned　upon　men's　minds。　At　first　the　churchwardens　were　ordered　to　summon　meetings　for　the　purpose　of　collecting　alms；　and　overseers　were　appointed　who　'shall　gently　ask　and　demand'　of　every　man　and　woman　what　they　of　their　charity　will　give　weekly　towards　the　relief　of　the　poor。　Mayors；　head…officers；　and　churchwardens　were　to　collect　money　in　boxes　'every　Sunday　and　holyday。'　The　parsons；　vicar　and　curate；　were　to　reason　with　those　who　would　not　give；　and　if　they　were　not　successful；　the　obstinate　person　was　to　be　sent　to　the　bishop；　who　was　to　'induce　and　persuade　him'；　or　by　the　provisions　of　a　later　law；　he　was　to　be　assessed　at　Quarter　Sessions　（1562）。　Such　was　the　first　recognition　of　the　principle　of　compulsory　support；　of　the　fact　that　there　are　men　in　the　community　whom　no　one　will　relieve。　There　appears　upon　the　scene　for　the　first　time　the　isolated　individual；　a　figure　unknown　to　medieval　society；　but　who　constitutes　so　striking　a　phenomenon　in　the　modern　world。　And　hence　springs　up　a　new　relation　between　the　State　and　the　individual。　Since　the　latter　is　no　longer　a　member　of　a　compact　group；　the　State　itself　has　to　enter　into　direct　connection　with　him。　Thus；　by　the　growth　at　once　of　freedom　and　of　poverty；　the　whole　status　of　the　working　classes　had　been　changed；　and　the　problem　of　modern　legislation　came　to　be　this：　to　discover　how　we　can　have　a　working　class　of　free　men；　who　shall　yet　find　it　easy　to　obtain　sustenance；　in　other　words；　how　to　combine　political　and　material　freedom。　　　　　All　the　principles　of　our　modern　Poor　Laws　are　found　in　the　next　Statute　we　have　to　notice；　the　great　law　of　the　43rd　year　of　Elizabeth；　which　drew　the　sharp　distinction；　ever　since　preserved；　between　the　able…bodied　and　the　impotent　poor。　The　latter　were　to　be　relieved　by　a　compulsory　rate　collected　by　the　overseers；　the　former　were　to　be　set　to　work　upon　materials　provided　out　of　the　rates；　children　and　orphans　were　to　be　apprenticed。　From　this　date　1601；　there　were　no　fundamental　changes　in　the　law　till　the　end　of　the　eighteenth　century。　The　law　of　settlement；　however；　which　sprang　directly　out　of　the　Act　of　Elizabeth；　was　added；　it　was　the　first　attempt　to　prevent　the　migration　of　labourers　by　other　means　than　punishment。　It　began　with　the　Statute　of　1662；　which　allowed　a　pauper　to　obtain　relief　only　from　that　parish　where　he　had　his　settlement；　and　defined　settlement　as　forty　days'　residence　without　interruption；　but　after　this　Statute　there　were　constant　changes　in　the　law；　leading　to　endless　complications；　and　more　litigation　took　place　on　this　question　of　settlement　than　on　any　other　point　of　the　Poor　Law。　It　was　not　till　1795　that　the　hardship　of　former　enactments　was　mitigated　by　an　Act　under　which　no　new　settler　could　be　removed　until　he　became　actually　chargeable　to　the　parish。　　　　　Two　other　modifications　of　the　Act　of　Elizabeth　require　to　be　noticed。　In　1691　the　administration　of　relief　was　partially　taken　out　of　the　hands　of　the　overseers　and　given　to　the　Justices　of　the　Peace；　the　alleged　reason　being　that　the　overseers　had　abused　their　power。　Henceforth　they　were　not　allowed　to　relieve　except　by　order　of　a　Justice　of　the　Peace；　and　this　provision　was　construed　into　a　power　conferred　upon　the　Justices　to　give　relief　independently　of　any　application　on　the　part　of　the　overseers；　and　led；　in　fact；　to　Justices　ordering　relief　at　their　own　discretion。　The　other　important　change　in　the　Poor　Law　was　the　introduction　of　the　workhouse　test　in　1722。　It　is　clear　that　pauperism　had　grown　since　the　reign　of　Charles　II。　There　are　many　pamphlets　of　the　period　full　of　suggestions　as　to　a　remedy；　but　the　only　successful　idea　was　this　of　the　workhouse　test。　Parishes　were　now　empowered　to　unite　and　build　a　workhouse；　and　refuse　relief　to　all　who　would　not　enter　it；　but　the　clauses　for　building　workhouses　remained　inoperative；　as　very　few　parishes　would　adopt　them。　　　　　The　question　remains　to　be　asked：　Why　was　pauperism　still　slowly　increasing　in　the　course　of　the　seventeenth　and　eighteenth　centuries　in　spite　of　a　rise　in　wages；　and；　during　the　first　half　of　the　eighteenth　century；　a　low　price　of　corn？　Enclosures　and　the　consolidation　of　farms；　though　as　yet　these　had　been　on　a　comparatively　small　scale；　were　partly　responsible　for　it；　as　they　were　in　an　earlier　century。　Already；　in　1727；　it　was　said　that　some　owners　were　much　too　eager　to　evict　farmers　and　cottagers；　and　were　punished　by　an　increase　of　rates　consequent　on　the　evicted　tenants　sinking　into　pauperism。　By　Eden's　time　the　practice　of　eviction　had　become　general；　and　the　connection　between　eviction　and　pauperism　is　an　indisputable　fact；　though　it　has　been　overlooked　by　most　writers。　Eden's　evidence　again　shows　that　pauperism　was　greatest　where　enclosures　had　taken　place。　At　Winslow；　for　instance；　enclosed　in　1744　and　1766；　'the　rise　of　the　rates　was　chiefly　ascribed　to　the　enclosure　of　the　common　fields；　which；　it　was　said；　had　lessened　the　number　of　farms；　and　from　the　conversion　of　arable　into　pasture　had　much　reduced　the　demand　for　labourers。'　Again；　at　Kilworth…Beauchamp　in　Leicestershire；　'the　fields　being　now　in　pasturage；　the　farmers　had　little　occasion　for　labourers；　and　the　poor　being　thereby　thrown　out　of　employment　had；　of　course；　to　be　supported　by　the　parish。'　Here　too　the　evil　was　aggravated　by　the　fate　of　the　ejected　farmers；　who　sank　into　the　condition　of　labourers；　and　swelled　the　numbers　of　the　unemployed。　'Living　in　a　state　of　servile　dependence　on　the　large　farmers；　and　having　no　prospect　to　which　their　hopes　could　reasonably　look　forward；　their　industry　was　checked；　economy　was　deprived　of　its　greatest　stimulation；　and　their　only　thought　was　to　enjoy　the　present　moment。'　Again；　at　Blandford；　where　the　same　consolidation　of　farms　had　been　going　on；　Eden　remarks　that　'its　effects；　it　is　said；　oblige　small　industrious　farmers　to　turn　labourers　or　servants；　who；　seeing　no　opening　towards　advancement；　become　regardless　of　futurity；　spend　their　little　wages　as　they　receive　them　without　reserving　a　pension　for　their　old　age；　and；　if　incapacitated　from　wo