lectures on the industrial revolution in england-第16部分

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es　as　they　receive　them　without　reserving　a　pension　for　their　old　age；　and；　if　incapacitated　from　working　by　a　sickness　which　lasts　a　very　short　time；　inevitably　fall　upon　the　parish。'　　　　　Besides　the　enclosure　of　the　common…fields；　and　the　consolidation　of　farms；　the　enclosure　of　the　commons　and　wastes　likewise　contributed　to　the　growth　of　pauperism。　Arthur　Young　and　Eden　thought　that　commons　were　a　cause　of　idleness；　the　labourers　wasted　their　time　in　gathering　sticks　or　grubbing　furze；　their　pigs　and　cows　involved　perpetual　disputes　with　their　neighbours；　and　were　a　constant　temptation　to　trespass。　No　doubt　this　was　true　where　the　common　was　large　enough　to　support　the　poor　without　other　occupation。　But　on　the　other　hand；　where　the　labourer　was　regularly　employed；　a　small　common　was　a　great　extra　resource　to　him。　Arthur　Young　himself　mentions　a　case　at　Snettisham　in　Norfolk；　where；　when　the　waste　was　enclosed；　the　common　rights　had　been　preserved；　and　as　a　result　of　this；　combined　with　the　increased　labour　due　to　the　enclosure；　the　poor…rates　fell　from　1　s。　6d。　to　1　s。　or　9d。；　while　population　grew　from　five　to　six　hundred。　He　goes　on　to　say　that　enclosures　had　generally　been　carried　out　with　an　utter　disregard　for　the　rights　of　the　poor。　According　to　Thornton；　the　formation　of　parks　contributed　to　the　general　result；　but　I　know　of　no　evidence　on　this　head。　A　further　cause　of　pauperism；　when　we　come　to　the　end　of　the　century；　was　the　great　rise　in　prices　as　compared　with　that　in　wages。　In　1782　the　price　of　corn　was　53s。　9　1/4d。；　which　was　considerably　higher　than　the　average　of　the　preceding　fifty　years；　but　in　1795　it　had　risen　to　81s。　6d。；　and　in　the　next　year　it　was　even　more。　The　corn　average　from　1795　to　1805　was　81s。　2　1/2d。；　and　from　1805　to　1815　97s。　6d。　In　1800　and　1801　it　reached　the　maximum　of　127s。　and　128s。　6d。；　which　brought　us　nearer　to　a　famine　than　we　had　been　since　the　fourteenth　century。　Many　other　articles　had　risen　too。　The　taxes　necessitated　by　the　debt　contracted　during　the　American　war　raised　the　prices　of　soap；　leather；　candles；　etc。；　by　one…fifth；　butter　and　cheese　rose　1　1/2d。　a　pound；　meat　1　d。　And　meanwhile；　'what　advance　during　the　last　ten　or　twelve　years；'　asks　a　writer　in　1788；　'has　been　made　in　the　wages　of　labourers？　Very　little　indeed；　in　their　daily　labour　nothing　at　all；　either　in　husbandry　or　manufactures。'　Only　by　piece…work　could　they　obtain　more　in　nominal　wages。　Lastly；　in　the　towns　there　had　come　the　introduction　of　machinery；　the　final　establishment　of　the　cash…nexus；　and　the　beginning　of　great　fluctUations　in　trade。　In　the　old　days　the　employer　maintained　his　men　when　out　of　work；　now　he　repudiated　the　responsibility；　and　the　decline　in　the　position　of　the　artisan　could　be　attributed　by　contemporary　writers　to　'the　iniquitous　oppressive　practices　of　those　who　have　the　direction　of　them。'　　　　　Such　seem　to　have　been　the　causes　of　the　growth　of　pauperism　and　of　the　degradation　of　the　labourer；　the　single　effective　remedy　attempted　was　the　workhouse　test；　and　this　was　abandoned　in　1782。　But　might　not　landlords　and　farmers　have　done　something　more　to　check　the　downward　course？　Were　there　no　possible　remedies？　One　cannot　help　thinking　the　problem　might　have　been　solved　by　common　justice　in　the　matter　of　enclosures。　Those　who　were　most　in　favour　of　enclosing　for　the　sake　of　agricultural　improvements；　like　Eden　and　Young；　yet　held　that；　in　place　of　his　common　field　and　pasture　rights；　the　labourer　should　have　had　an　acre；　or　two　acres；　or　half　an　acre；　as　the　case　might　be；　attached　to　his　cottage。　By　such　compensation　much　misery　would　have　been　prevented。　A　more　difficult　question　is；　whether　anything　could　have　been　done　directly　to　relieve　the　stress　of　high　prices？　Burke　contended　that　nothing　could　be　done；　that　there　was　no　necessary　connection　between　wages　and　prices；　and　he　would　have　left　the　evil　to　natural　remedies。　And；　as　a　matter　of　fact；　in　the　North　where　there　was　no　artificial　interference　with　wages；　the　development　of　mining　and　manufactures　saved　the　labourer。　　　　　In　the　Midlands　and　South；　where　this　needful　stimulus　was　absent；　the　case　was　different；　some　increase　in　the　labourer's　means　of　subsistence　was　absolutely　necessary　here；　in　order　that　he　might　exist。　It　would　have　been　dangerous　to　let　things　alone；　and　the　true　way　to　meet　the　difficulty　would　have　been　for　the　farmers　to　have　raised　wages　…　a　course　of　action　which　they　have　at　times　adopted。　But　an　absence　alike　of　intelligence　and　generosity；　and　the　vicious　working　of　the　Poor　Laws　in　the　midland　and　southern　counties；　prevented　this。　The　farmers　refused　to　recognise　the　claims　alike　of　humanity　and　self…interest；　so　the　justices　and　country　gentlemen　took　the　matter　into　their　own　hands；　while　the　labourers　threw　themselves　upon　the　Poor　Law；　and　demanded　that　the　parish　should　do　what　the　farmers　refused　to　do；　and　should　supplement　insufficient　wages　by　an　allowance。　This　was　the　principle　which　radically　vitiated　the　old　Poor　Law。　The　farmers　supported　the　system；　they　wished　every　man　to　have　an　allowance　according　to　his　family；　and　declared　that　'high　wages　and　free　labour　would　overwhelm　them。'　A　change　had　also　come　over　the　minds　of　the　landowners　as　to　their　relation　to　the　people。　In　addition　to　unthinking　and　ignorant　benevolence；　we　can　trace　the　growth　of　a　sentiment　which　admitted　an　unconditional　right　on　the　part　of　the　poor　to　an　indefinite　share　in　the　national　wealth；　but　the　right　was　granted　in　such　a　way　as　to　keep　them　in　dependence　and　diminish　their　self…respect。　Though　it　was　increased　by　the　panic　of　the　French　revolution；　this　idea　of　bribing　the　people　into　passiveness　was　not　absolutely；　new。　It　had　prompted　Gilbert's　Act　in　1782；　which　abolished　the　workhouse　test；　and　provided　work　for　those　who　were　willing　near　their　homes。　It　was　this　Tory　Socialism；　this　principle　of　protection　of　the　poor　by　the　rich；　which　gave　birth　to　the　frequent　use　of　the　term　'labouring　poor；'　so　common　in　the　Statutes　and　in　Adam　Smith；　an　expression　which　Burke　attacked　as　a　detestable　canting　phrase。　　　　　The　war　with　Napoleon　gave　a　new　impulse　to　this　pauperising　policy。　Pitt　and　the　country　gentlemen　wanted　strong　armies　to　fight　the　French；　and　reversed　the　old　policy　as　regards　checks　upon　population。　Hitherto　they　had　exercised　control　over　the　numbers　of　the　labourers　by　refusing　to　build　cottages；　in　1771；　'an　open　war　against　cottages'　had　been　carried　on；　and　landlords　often　pulled　down　cottages；　says　Arthur　Young；　'that　they　may　never　become　the　nests；　as　they　are　called；　of　beggar　brats。'　But　now　by　giving　extra　allowance　to　large　families；　they　put　a　premium　on　early　marriages；　and　labourers　were　paid　according　to　the　number　of　their　children。　Further　extension　of　the　allowance　system　came　from　actual　panic　at　home。　Farmers　and　landowners　were　intimidated　by　the　labourers：　the　landowners　had　themselves　according　to　Malthus　at　once　inflamed　the　minds　of　their　labourers　and　preached　to　them　submission。　Rick…burning　was　frequent；　at　Swallowfield；　in　Wiltshire；　the　justices；　'under　the　influence　of　the　panic　struck　by　the　fires；　so　far　yielded　to　the　importunity　of　the　farmers　as　to　adopt　the　allowance…system　during　the　winter　months。'　In　1795　some　Berkshire　justices　'and　other　discreet　persons'　issued　a　proclamation；　which　came　to　be　considered　as　a　guide　to　all　the　magistrates　of　the　South　of　England。　They　declared　it　to　be　their　unanimous　opinion　that　the　state　of　the　poor　required　further　assistance　than　had　been　generally　given　them；　and　with　this　view　they　held　it　inexpedient　to　regulate　wages　according　to　the　statutes　of　Elizabeth　and　James；　they　would　earnestly　recommend　farmers　and　others　to　increase　the　pay　of　their　labourers　in　proportion　to　the　present　price　of　provisions；　but　if　the　farmers　refused；　they　would　make　an　allowance　to　every　poor　family　in　proportion　to　its　numbers。　They　stated　what　they　thought　necessary　for　a　man　and　his　wife　and　children；　which　was　to　be　produced　'either　by　his　own　and　his　family's　labour　on　an　allowance　from　the　poor…rates。'　These　were　the　beginnings　of　the　allowance　system；　which　under　its　many　forms　ended　in　thoroughly　demoralising　the　people；　it　had　not　been　long　in　operation　before　we　hear　the　labourers　described　as　lazy；　mutinous；　and　imperious　to　the　overseers。　When　grants　in　aid　of　wages　were　deemed　insufficient；　the　men　would　go　to　a　magistrate　to　complain；　the　magistrate　would　appeal　to　the　humanity　of　the　overseer；　the　men　would　add　threats；　and　the　overseer　would　give　in。　In　the　parish　of　Bancliffe　'　a　man　was　employed　to　look　after　the　paupers；　but　they　threatened　to　drown　him；　and　he　was　obliged　to　withdraw。'　The　whole　character　of　the　people　was　lowered　by　the　admission　that　they　had　a　right　to　relief　independent　of　work。

X。　Malthus　and　the　Law　of　Population

　　　　It　was　during　this　state　of　things；　with　population　rapidly　increasing；　that　Malthus　wrote。　Yet　he　was　not　thinking　directly　of　the　Poor　Law；　but　of　Godwin；　who；　under　the　influence　of　Rousseau；　had　in　his　Inquirer　ascribed　all　human　ills　to　human　government　and　institutions；　and　drawn　bright　pictures　of　what　might　be　in　a　reformed　society。　Malthus　denied　their　possibility。　Under　no　system；　he　contended；　could　such　happiness　be　insured；　human　misery　was　not　the　result　of　human　injustice　and　of　bad　institutions；　but　of　an　inexorable　law　of　nature；　viz。；　that　population　tends　to　outstrip　the　means　of　subsistence。　This　law　would　in　a　few　generations　counteract　the　effects　of　the　best　institutions　that　human　wisdom　could　conceive。　It　is　remarkable　that　though　in　his　first　edition　he　gave　a　conclusive　answer　to　Godwin；　Malthus　afterwards　made　an　admission　which　deducted　a　good　deal　from　the　force　of　his　argument。　To　the　'positive　check'　of　misery　and　vice；　he　added　the　'preventive　check'　of　moral　restraint；　namely；　abstinence　from　marriage。　To　this　Godwin　made　the　obvious　reply　that　such　a　qualification　virtually　conceded　the　perfectibility　of　society。　But　Malthus　still　thought　his　argument　conclusive　as　against　Godwin's　Communism。　If　private　property　was　abolished；　he　said；　all　inducements　to　moral　restraint　would　be　taken　away。　His　prophecy　has；　however；　since　his　tim