lectures on the industrial revolution in england-第18部分

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　workhouse　test　and　the　gradual　abolition　of　outdoor　relief　to　able…bodied　labourers；　（b）　the　formation　of　unions　of　parishes　to　promote　economy　and　efficiency；　these　unions　to　be　governed　by　Boards　of　Guardians　elected　by　the　ratepayers；　thus　putting　an　end　to　the　mischievous　reign　of　the　Justices　of　the　Peace；　（c）　a　central　Board　of　Poor　Law　Commissioners；　with　very　large　powers　to　deal　with　the　Boards　of　Guardians　and　control　their　action；　（d）　a　new　bastardy　law；　（e）　a　mitigation　of　the　laws　of　settlement。　The　effect　of　the　new　law　was　very　remarkable。　As　an　example；　take　the　case　of　Sussex。　Before　1834　there　were　in　that　county　over　6000　able…bodied　paupers；　two　years　later　there　were　124。　A　similar　change　took　place　in　almost　all　the　rural　districts；　and　the　riots　and　rick…burning　which　had　been　so　rife　began　to　grow　less　frequent。　Equally　remarkable　was　the　effect　upon　the　rates。　In　1818　they　were　nearly　*8；000；000　in　England　and　Wales；　in　1837　they　had　sunk　to　a　little　over　*4；000；000；　and　are　now　only　*7；500；000　in　spite　of　the　enormous　growth　of　population。　The　number　of　paupers；　which　in　1849　was　930；000；　has　dwindled　in　1881　to　800；000；　though　the　population　has　meanwhile　increased　by　more　than　8；000；000。　Notwithstanding　this　improvement　the　Poor　Laws　are　by　no　means　perfect；　and　great　reforms　are　still　needed。　　　　　Next　in　importance　as　an　actual　remedy　we　must　place　emigration。　Malthus　despised　it。　He　thought　that　'from　the　natural　unwillingness　of　people　to　desert　their　native　country；　and　the　difficulty　of　clearing　and　cultivating　fresh　soil；　it　never　is　or　can；　that；　even　if　effectual　for　the　time；　the　be　adequately　adopted'；　relief　it　afforded　would　only　be　temporary；　'and　the　disorders　would　return　with　increased　virulence。'　He　could　not　of　course　foresee　the　enormous　development　which　would　be　given　to　it　by　steam　navigation；　and　the　close　connection　established　thereby　between　England　and　America。　Since　1815　eight　and　a　quarter　millions　of　people　have　emigrated　from　the　United　Kingdom；　since　1847　three　and　a　half　millions　have　gone　from　England　and　Wales　alone；　and　this　large　emigration　has　of　course　materially　lightened　the　labour　market。　Nor　could　Malthus　any　more　foresee　the　great　importation　of　food　which　would　take　place　in　later　times。　In　his　day　England　was　insulated　by　war　and　the　corn　laws；　now；　we　import　one…half　of　our　food；　and　pay　for　it　with　our　manufactures。　　　　　As　to　moral　restraint；　it　is　very　doubtful；　whether　it　has　been　largely　operative。　According　to　Professor　Jevons；　writing　fifteen　years　ago；　it　has　been　so　only　to　a　very　small　extent。　Up　to　1860　the　number　of　marriages　was　rather　on　the　increase；　but　if　among　the　masses；　owing　to　cheap　food；　marriages　have　become　more　frequent；　restraint　has　on　the　other　hand　certainly　grown　among　the　middle　classes　and　the　best　of　the　artisan　class。　　　　　I　wish　to　speak　of　one　more　remedy；　which　Malthus　himself　repudiated；　namely；　that　of　artificial　checks　on　the　number　of　children。　It　has　been　said　that　such　questions　should　only　be　discussed　'under　the　decent　veil　of　a　dead　language。'　Reticence　on　them　is　necessary　to　wholesomeness　of　mind；　but　we　ought　nevertheless　to　face　the　problem；　for　it　is　a　vital　one。　These　preventive　checks　on　births　excite　our　strong　moral　repugnance。　Men　may　call　such　repugnance　prejudice；　but　it　is　perfectly　logical；　because　it　is　a　protest　against　the　gratification　of　a　strong　instinct　while　the　duties　attaching　to　it　are　avoided。　Still　our　moral　repugnance　should　not　prevent　our　considering　the　question。　Let　us　examine　results。　What　evidence　is　there　as　to　the　effects　of　a　system　of　artificial　checks？　We　know　that　at　least　one　European　nation；　the　French；　has　to　some　extent　adopted　them。　Now　we　find　that　in　the　purely　rural　Department　of　the　Eure；　where　the　population；　owing　presumably　to　the　widespread　adoption　of　artificial　checks；　is　on　the　decline；　although　the　district　is　the　best　cultivated　in　France　and　enjoys　considerable　material　prosperity；　the　general　happiness　promised　is　not　found。　This　Department　comes　first　in　statistics　of　crime；　one…third　of　these　crimes　are　indecent　outrages；　another　third　are　paltry　thefts；　and　infanticide　also　is　rife。　Though　this　is　very　incomplete　evidence；　it　shows　at　least　that　you　may　adopt　these　measures　without　obtaining　the　promised　results。　The　idea　that　a　stationary　and　materially　prosperous　population　will　necessarily　be　free　from　vice　is　unreasonable　enough　in　itself；　and　there　is　the　evidence　of　experience　against　it。　Indeed；　one　strong　objection　to　any　such　system　is　to　be　found　in　the　fact　that　a　stationary　population　is　not　a　healthy　condition　of　things　in　regard　to　national　life；　it　means　the　removal　of　a　great　stimulus　to　progress。　One　incentive　to　invention；　in　particular；　is　removed　in　France　by　attempts　to　adapt　population　to　the　existing　means　of　subsistence；　for　in　this　respect　it　is　certainly　true　that　the　struggle　for　existence　is　essential　to　progress。　Such　practices；　moreover；　prove　injurious　to　the　children　themselves。　The　French　peasant　toils　ceaselessly　to　leave　each　of　his　children　a　comfortable　maintenance。　It　would　be　better　for　them　to　be　brought　up　decently；　and　then　left　to　struggle　for　their　own　maintenance。　Much　of　the　genius　and　inventive　power　in　English　towns　has　come　from　the　rural　districts　with　men　belonging　to　large　families；　who　started　in　life　impressed　with　the　idea　that　they　must　win　their　own　way。　It　is　wrong　to　consider　this　question　from　the　point　of　view　of　wealth　alone；　we　cannot　overrate　the　importance　of　family　life　as　the　source　of　all　that　is　best　in　national　life。　Often　the　necessity　of　supporting　and　educating　a　large　family　is　a　training　and　refining　influence　in　the　lives　of　the　parents；　and　the　one　thing　that　makes　the　ordinary　man　conscious　of　his　duties；　and　turns　him　into　a　good　citizen。　In　the　last　resort　we　may　say　that　such　practices　are　unnecessary　in　England　at　the　present　day。　A　man　in　the　superior　artisan　or　middle　classes　has　only　to　consider　when　he　will　have　sufficient　means　to　rear　an　average　number　of　children；　that　is；　he　need　only　regulate　the　time　of　his　marriage。　Postponement　of　marriage；　and　the　willing　emigration　of　some　of　his　children　when　grown　up；　does；　in　his　case；　meet　the　difficulty。　He　need　not　consider　whether　there　is　room　in　the　world　for　more；　for　there　is　room；　and；　in　the　interests　of　civilisation；　it　is　not　desirable　that　a　nation　with　a　great　history　and　great　qualities　should　not　advance　in　numbers。　For　the　labouring　masses；　on　the　other　hand；　with　whom　prudential　motives　have　no　weight；　the　only　true　remedy　is　to　carry　out　such　great　measures　of　social　reform　as　the　improvement　of　their　dwellings；　better　education　and　better　amusements；　and　thus　lift　them　into　the　position　now　held　by　the　artisan；　where　moral　restraints　are　operative。　Above　all；　it　must　be　remembered　that　this　is　not　a　purely　economic　problem；　nor　is　it　to　be　solved　by　mechanical　contrivances。　To　reach　the　true　solution　we　must　tenaciously　hold　to　a　high　ideal　of　spiritual　life。　What　the　mechanical　contrivances　might　perchance　give　us　is　not　what　we　desire　for　our　country。　The　true　remedies；　on　the　other　hand；　imply　a　growth　towards　that　purer　and　higher　condition　of　society　for　which　alone　we　care　to　strive。

XI。　The　Wage…Fund　Theory

　　　　Besides　originating　the　theory　of　population　which　bears　his　name；　Malthus　was　the　founder　of　that　doctrine　of　wages　which；　under　the　name　of　the　wage…fund　theory；　was　accepted　for　fifty　years　in　England。　To　ascertain　what　the　theory　is　we　may　take　Mill's　statement　of　it；　as　given　in　his　review　of　Thornton　On　Labour　in　1869。　'There　is　supposed　to　be；'　he　says；　'at　any　given　instant；　a　sum　of　wealth　which　is　unconditionally　devoted　to　the　payment　of　wages　of　labour。　This　sum　is　not　regarded　as　unalterable；　for　it　is　augmented　by　saving；　and　increases　with　the　progress　of　wealth；　but　it　is　reasoned　upon　as　at　any　given　moment　a　predetermined　amount。　More　than　that　amount　it　is　assumed　that　the　wages…receiving　class　cannot　possibly　divide　among　them；　that　amount；　and　no　less；　they　cannot　possibly　fail　to　obtain。　So　that　the　sum　to　be　divided　being　fixed；　the　wages　of　each　depend　solely　on　the　divisor；　the　number　of　participants。'　This　theory　was　implicitly　believed　from　Malthus's　time　to　about　1870；　we　see　it　accepted；　for　instance；　in　Miss　Martineau's　Tales。　And　from　the　theory　several　conclusions　were　deduced　which；　owing　to　their　practical　importance；　it　is　well　to　put　in　the　forefront　of　our　inquiry　as　to　its　truth。　It　is　these　conclusions　which　have　made　the　theory　itself　and　the　science　to　which　it　belongs　an　offence　to　the　whole　working　class。　It　was　said　in　the　first　place　that　according　to　the　wage…fund　theory；　Trades…Unions　could　not　at　any　given　time　effect　a　general　rise　in　wages。　It　was；　indeed；　sometimes　admitted　that　in　a　particular　trade　the　workmen　could　obtain　a　rise　by　combination；　but　this　could　only　be；　it　was　alleged；　at　the　expense　of　workmen　in　other　trades。　If；　for　instance；　the　men　in　the　building　trade　got　higher　wages　through　their　Union；　those　in　the　iron　foundries　or　in　some　other　industry　must　suffer　to　an　equivalent　extent。　In　the　next　place　it　was　argued　that　combinations　of　workmen　could　not　in　the　long…run　increase　the　fund　out　of　which　wages　were　paid。　Capital　might　be　increased　by　saving；　and；　if　this　saving　Was　more　rapid　than　the　increase　in　the　number　of　labourers；　wages　would　rise；　but　it　was　denied　that　Unions　could　have　any　effect　in　forcing　such　an　increase　of　saving。　And　hence　it　followed　that　the　only　real　remedy　for　low　wages　was　a　limitation　of　the　number　of　the　labourers。　The　rate　of　wages；　it　was　said；　depended　entirely　on　the　efficacy　of　checks　to　population。　　　　　The　error　lay　in　the　premisses。　The　old　economists；　it　may　be　observed；　very　seldom　examined　their　premisses。　For　this　theory　assumes　…　（1）　that　either　the　capital　of　a　particular　individual　available　for　the　payment　of　wages　is　fixed；　or；　at　any　rate；　the　total　capital　of　the　community　so　available　is　fixed；　and　（2）　that　wages　are　always　paid　out　of　capital。　Now　it　is　plainly　not　true　that　a　particular　employer　makes　up　his　mind　to　spend　a　fixed　quantity　of　money　on　labour；　the　amount