lectures on the industrial revolution in england-第19部分

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at　a　particular　employer　makes　up　his　mind　to　spend　a　fixed　quantity　of　money　on　labour；　the　amount　spent　varies　with　a　number　of　circumstances　affecting　the　prospect　of　profit　on　the　part　of　the　capitalist；　such；　for　instance；　as　the　price　of　labour。　Take　the　instance　of　a　strike　of　agricultural　labourers　in　Ireland；　given　by　Mr　Trench　to　Nassau　Senior。　He　was　employing　one　hundred　men　at　10d。　a　day；　thus　spending　on　wages　*25　a　week。　The　men　struck　for　higher　pay　…　a　minimum　of　1s。　2d。；　and　the　more　capable　men　to　have　more。　Trench　offered　to　give　the　wages　asked　for；　but　greatly　reduced　his　total　expenditure；　as　it　would　not　pay　to　employ　so　many　men　at　the　higher　rate。　Thus　only　seventeen　were　employed；　the　other　eighty…three　objected；　and　it　ended　in　all　going　back　to　work　at　the　old　rate。　The　fact　is；　that　no　individual　has　a　fixed　wage…fund；　which　it　is　not　in　his　power　either　to　diminish　or　increase。　Just　as　he　may　reduce　the　total　amount　which　he　spends　on　labour；　rather　than　pay　a　rate　of　wages　which　seems　incompatible　with　an　adequate　profit；　so　he　may　increase　that　total　amount；　in　order　to　augment　the　wages　of　his　labourers；　by　diminishing　the　sum　he　spends　upon　himself　or　by　employing　capital　which　is　lying　idle；　if　he　thinks　that　even　with　the　higher　rate　of　wages　he　can　secure　a　sufficiently　remunerative　return　upon　his　investment。　Thus　the　workman　may；　according　to　circumstances；　get　higher　or　lower　wages　than　the　current　rate；　without　any　alteration　in　the　quantity　of　employment　given。　When　wages　in　Dorset　and　Wilts　were　7s。；　the　labourers；　if　they　had　had　sufficient　intelligence　and　power　of　combination；　might　have　forced　the　farmers　to　pay　them　8s。　or　9s。；　for　the　latter　were　making　very　high　profits。　As　a　matter　of　fact；　where　the　workmen　have　been　strong；　and　the　profits　made　by　the　employers　large；　the　former　have　often　forced　the　employers　to　give　higher　wages。　　　　　Neither　is　it　true　that　there　is　in　the　hands　of　the　community　as　a　whole；　at　any　given　time；　a　fixed　quantity　of　capital　for　supplying　the　wants　of　the　labourers；　so　much　food；　boots；　hats；　clothes；　etc。；　which　neither　employers　nor　workmen　can　increase。　It　used　to　be　said　that　a　rise　in　money　wages　would　simply　mean　that　the　price　of　all　the　commodities　purchased　by　the　labourers　would　rise　proportionately；　owing　to　the　increase　of　demand；　and　that　their　real　wages；　i。e。　the　number　of　things　they　could　purchase　with　their　money；　would　be　no　greater　than　before。　But；　as　a　matter　of　fact；　the　supply　can　be　increased　as　fast　as　the　demand。　It　is　true　that　between　two　harvests　the　available　quantity　of　corn　is　fixed；　but　that　of　most　other　commodities　can　be　increased　at　a　short　notice。　For　commodities　are　not　stored　up　for　consumption　in　great　masses；　but　are　being　continually　produced　as　the　demand　for　them　arises。　　　　　So　far　I　have　been　speaking　of　the　theory　as　applied　to　wages　at　a　particular　time。　Now；　what　did　it　further　imply　of　wages　in　the　long…run？　According　to　Ricardo's　law；　which　has　been　adopted　by　Lassalle　and　the　Socialists；　wages　depend　on　the　ratio　between　population　and　capital。　Capital　may　be　gradually　increased　by　saving；　and　population　may　be　gradually　diminished；　but　Ricardo　thought　that　the　condition　of　the　labourer　was　surely　on　the　decline；　because　population　was　advancing　faster　than　capital。　While　admitting　occasionally　that　there　had　been　changes　in　the　standard　of　comfort；　he　yet　disregarded　these　in　his　general　theory；　and　assumed　that　the　standard　was　fixed；　that　an　increase　of　wages　would　lead　to　an　increase　of　population；　and　that　wages　would　thus　fall　again　to　their　old　rate；　or　even　lower。　The　amount　of　corn　consumed　by　the　labourer　would　not　diminish；　but　that　of　all　other　commodities　would　decline。　Later　economists　have　qualified　this　statement　of　the　supposed　law。　Mill　showed　that　the　standard　of　comfort　was　not　fixed；　but　might　vary　indefinitely。　This　being　the　case；　the　labourer　might　sink　even　lower　than　Ricardo　supposed　possible；　for　population　might　increase　till　the　labourer　had　not　only　less　of　everything　else；　but　was　forced　down　to　a　lower　staple　of　life　than　corn；　for　instance；　potatoes。　And　this　has；　as　a　matter　of　fact；　taken　place　in　some　countries。　But；　on　the　other　hand；　the　standard　might　rise；　as　it　has　risen　in　England；　and　Mill　thought　that　it　would　rise　yet　more。　At　first　this　was　his　only　hope　for　the　working　classes。　At　a　later　period　he　trusted　that　the　labourer；　by　means　of　co…operation；　might　become　more　and　more　self…employing；　and　so　obtain　both　profits　and　wages。　　　　　It　is　interesting　to　inquire　how　this　wage…fund　theory　grew　up。　Why　was　it　held　that　employers　could　not　give　higher　real　wages？　Its　origin　is　easy　to　understand。　When　Malthus　wrote　his　essay　on　population；　there　had　been　a　series　of　bad　harvests；　and　in　those　days　but　small　supplies　of　corn　could　be　obtained　from　abroad。　Thus　year　after　year　there　seemed　to　be　a　fixed　quantity　of　food　in　the　country　and　increasing　numbers　requiring　food。　Population　was　growing　faster　than　subsistence；　and　increased　money　wages　could　not　increase　the　quantity　of　food　that　was　to　be　had。　Thus　in　1800；　when　corn　was　l27s。　the　quarter；　it　was　clear　that　the　rich　could　not　help　the　poor　by　giving　them　higher　wages；　for　this　would　simply　have　raised　the　price　of　the　fixed　quantity　of　corn。　Malthus　assumed　that　the　amount　of　food　was　practically　fixed；　therefore；　unless　population　diminished；　as　years　went　on；　wages　would　fall；　because　worse　soils　would　be　cultivated　and　there　would　be　increased　difficulty　in　obtaining　food。　But　the　period　he　had　before　his　eyes　was　quite　exceptional；　after　the　peace；　good　harvests　came　and　plenty　of　corn；　food　grew　cheaper；　though　population　advanced　at　the　same　rate。　So　that　the　theory　in　this　shape　was　true　only　of　the　twenty　years　from　1795　to　1815。　But；　when　it　had　once　been　said　that　wages　depended　on　the　proportion　between　population　and　food；　it　was　easy　to　substitute　capital　for　food　and　say　that　they　depended　on　the　proportion　between　population　and　capital；　food　and　capital　being　wrongly　identified。　Then　when　the　identification　was　forgotten；　it　was　supposed　that　there　is　at　any　given　moment　a　fixed　quantity　of　wage…capital…food；　boots；　hats；　furniture；　clothes；　etc。　…　destined　for　the　payment　of　wages；　which　neither　employers　nor　workmen　can　diminish　or　increase；　and　thus　the　rate　of　wages　came　to　be　regarded　as　regulated　by　a　natural　law；　independent　of　the　will　of　either　party。　　　　　We　have　already　seen　that　this　theory　is　false；　we　have　now　to　substitute　for　it　some　truer　theory；　and　explain　thereby　the　actual　phenomena　of　the　labour　market；　such；　for　instance；　as　the　fact　that　wages　at　Chicago　or　New　York　are　twice　as　high　as　they　are　in　England；　while　the　prices　of　the　necessaries　of　life　are　lower。　Though　modern　economists　have　pointed　out　the　fallacies　of　the　old　wage…fund　theory；　no　economist　has　yet　succeeded　in　giving　us　a　complete　theory　of　wages　in　its　place。　I　believe　indeed　that　so　complicated　a　set　of　conditions　as　are　involved　cannot　be　explained　by　any　one　formula；　and　that　the　attempt　to　do　so　leads　to　fallacies。　Yet　I　am　also　aware　that　the　public　seem　to　feel　themselves　aggrieved　that　economists　will　not　now　provide　them　with　another　convenient　set　phrase　in　place　of　the　wage…fund　theory；　and　are　inclined　to　doubt　the　validity　of　their　explanations　in　consequence。　Now；　wages　in　a　given　country　depend　on　two　things：　the　total　amount　of　produce　in　the　country；　and　the　manner　in　which　that　produce　is　divided。　To　work　out　the　former　problem　we　must　investigate　all　the　causes　which　affect　the　whole　amount　of　wealth　produced；　the　natural　resources　of　the　country；　its　political　institutions；　the　skill；　intelligence；　and　inventive　genius　of　its　inhabitants。　The　division　of　the　produce；　on　the　other　hand；　is　determined　mainly　by　the　proportion　between　the　number　of　labourers　seeking　employment　and　the　quantity　of　capital　seeking　investment；　or；　to　put　the　case　in　a　somewhat　different　way；　instead　of　saying　that　wages　are　paid　out　of　stored…up　capital；　we　now　say　that　they　are　the　labourer's　share　of　the　produce。　What　the　labourer's　share　will　be　depends　first　on　the　quantity　of　produce　he　can　turn　out；　and　secondly；　on　the　nature　of　the　bargain　which　he　is　able　to　make　with　his　employer。　We　are　now　in　a　position　to　explain　the　question　put　above；　why　wages　in　America　are　double　what　they　are　in　England。　An　American　ironmaster；　if　asked　to　give　a　reason　for　the　high　wages　he　pays；　would　say　that　the　land　determines　the　rate　of　wages　in　America；　because　under　the　Free　Homestead　Law；　any　man　can　get　a　piece　of　land　for　a　nominal　sum；　and　no　puddler　will　work　for　less　than　he　can　get　by　working　on　this　land。　Now；　in　the　Western　States　the　soil　is　very　fertile；　and　though　the　average　yield　is　lower　than　in　Wiltshire；　the　return　in　proportion　to　the　labour　expended　is　greater。　Moreover；　labour　being　scarce；　the　workman　has　to　be　humoured；　he　is　in　a　favourable　position　in　making　his　bargain　with　the　employer；　and　obtains　a　large　share　of　the　produce。　Thus　agricultural　wages　are　very　high；　and　this　explains　also　the　cause　of　high　wages　in　the　American　iron…trade　and　other　American　industries。　In　consequence　of　these　high　wages　the　manufacturer　is　obliged　to　make　large　use　of　machinery；　and　much　of　our　English　machinery；　e。g。　that　of　the　Leicester　boot　and　shoe　trade；　has　been　invented　in　America。　Now；　better　machinery　makes　labour　more　efficient　and　the　produce　per　head　of　the　labourers　greater。　Further；　according　to　the　testimony　of　capitalists；　the　workmen　work　harder　in　America　than　in　England；　because　they　work　with　hope；　they　have　before　them　the　prospect　of　rising　in　the　world　by　their　accumulations。　Thus　it　is　that　the　produce　of　American　manufactures　is　great；　and　allows　of　the　labourer　obtaining　a　large　share。　High　wages　in　America　are　therefore　explained　by　the　quantity　of　produce　the　labourer　turns　out　being　great　and　by　the　action　of　competition　being　in　his　favour。　　　　　There　are；　however；　other　causes　influencing　the　rate　of　wages　in　America　which　are　less　favourable　to　the　workmen。　Protection；　for　instance；　diminishes　real　wages　by　enhancing　the　cost　of　many　articles　in　common　use；　such　as　cu