lectures on the industrial revolution in england-第21部分

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ugh　owing　to　the　way　in　which　the　loans　were　raised；　the　actual　sum　which　came　into　the　national　exchequer　was　only　*350；000；000。　All　this　capital　was　withdrawn　from　productive　industry；　and　the　demand　for　labour　was　diminished　to　that　extent。　Lastly；　the　labourer　was　often　actually　paid　in　bad　coin；　quantities　of　which　were　bought　by　the　manufacturers　for　the　purpose；　and　he　was　robbed　by　the　truck　system；　through　which　the　employer　became　a　retail　trader；　with　power　to　over…price　his　goods　to　an　indefinite　extent。　　　　　Some　of　these　causes　affected　the　agricultural　and　manufacturing　labourers　alike；　they　suffered；　of　course；　equally　from　bad　harvests。　But　we　have　seen　in　former　lectures　that　there　were　agrarian　and　social　changes　during　this　period；　which　told　upon　the　agricultural　labourer　exclusively。　The　enclosures　took　away　his　common…rights；　and　where　the　land；　before　enclosure；　had　been　already　in　cultivation；　they　diminished　the　demand　for　his　labour；　besides　depriving　him　of　the　hope　of　becoming　himself　a　farmer；　and；　to　mention　a　seemingly　small　but　really　serious　loss；　cutting　off　his　supply　of　milk；　which　had　been　provided　by　the　'little　people'　who　kept　cows　on　the　commons。　He　was　further　affected　by　the　enormous　rise　in　cottage　rents。　Mr　Drummond；　a　Surrey　magistrate；　told　the　Commission　on　Labourers'　Wages　in　1824；　that　he　remembered　cottages　with　good　gardens　letting　for　30s。　before　the　war；　while　at　the　time　when　he　was　speaking　the　same　were　fetching　*5；　*7；　or　*10。　　　　　This　rise　was　due　to　causes　we　have　before　had　in　review；　to　the　growth　of　population；　the　expulsion　of　servants　from　the　farmhouses；　and　the　demolition　of　cottages　in　close　villages。　When　the　labourers；　to　meet　the　deficiency；　built　cottages　for　themselves　on　the　wastes；　the　farmers　pulled　them　down；　and；　if　the　labourers　rebuilt　them；　refused　to　employ　them；　with　the　result　that　such　labourers　became　thieves　and　poachers。　Again；　during　this　period；　it　was　not　uncommon　for　the　farmers　absolutely　to　determine　what　wages　should　be　paid；　and　the　men　in　their　ignorance　were　entirely　dependent　on　them。　Here　are　two　facts　to　prove　their　subservience。　In　one　instance；　two　pauper　families　who　had　cost　their　parish　no　less　than　*20　a　year　each；　were　given　instead　an　acre　of　land　rent　free；　and　the　rates　were　relieved　to　that　amount；　but　though　successful；　the　experiment　was　discontinued；　'lest　the　labourer　should　become　independent　of　the　farmer。'　And　this　is　the　statement　of　an　Essex　farmer　in　1793：　'I　was　the　more　desirous　to　give　them　an　increase　of　pay；　as　it　was　unasked　for　by　the　men；　who　were　content　with　less　than　they　had　a　right　to　expect。'　The　agricultural　labourer　at　this　time　was　in　an　entirely　helpless　condition　in　bargaining　with　his　employer。　Nor　were　the　farmers　the　only　class　who　profited　by　his　deterioration；　for　the　high　rents　of　the　time　were　often　paid　out　of　the　pocket　of　the　labourer。　The　period　was　one　of　costly　wars；　bad　seasons；　and　industrial　changes。　The　misfortunes　of　the　labouring　classes　were　partly　inevitable；　but　they　were　also　largely　the　result　of　human　injustice；　of　the　selfish　and　grasping　use　made　of　a　power　which　exceptional　circumstances　had　placed　in　the　hands　of　landowners；　farmers；　and　capitalists。

XII。　Ricardo　and　the　Growth　of　Rent

　　　　In　Political　Economy；　as　in　other　sciences；　a　careful　study　of　method　is　an　absolute　necessity。　And　this　subject　of　method　will　come　into　special　prominence　in　the　present　lecture；　because　we　have　now　to　consider　the　writings　of　a　man　of　extraordinary　intellect　and　force；　who；　beyond　any　other　thinker；　has　left　the　impress　of　his　mind　on　economic　method。　Yet　even　he　would　have　been　saved　from　several　fallacies；　if　he　had　paid　more　careful　attention　to　the　necessary　limitations　of　the　method　which　he　employed。　It　may　be　truly　said　that　David　Ricardo　has　produced　a　greater　effect　even　than　Adam　Smith　on　the　actual　practice　of　men　as　well　as　on　the　theoretical　consideration　of　social　problems。　His　book　has　been　at　once　the　great　prop　of　the　middle　classes；　and　their　most　terrible　menace；　the　latter；　because　from　it　have　directly　sprung　two　great　text…books　of　Socialism；　Das　Kapital　of　Karl　Marx；　and　the　Progress　and　Poverty　of　Mr　Henry　George。　And　yet　for　thirty　or　forty　years　Ricardo's　writings　did　more　than　those　of　any　other　author　to　justify　in　the　eyes　of　men　the　existing　state　of　society。　　　　　Ricardo's　life　has　little　in　it　of　external　interest。　He　made　his　fortune　on　the　Stock　Exchange　by　means　of　his　great　financial　abilities；　and　then　retired　and　devoted　himself　to　literature。　During　the　few　years　that　he　sat　in　Parliament；　he　worked　（we　have　it　on　Huskisson's　testimony）　a　great　change　in　the　opinions　of　legislators；　even　in　those　of　the　country　squires…a　remarkable　fact；　since　his　speeches　are　highly　abstract；　and　contain　few　allusions　to　current　politics；　reading　in　fact　like　chapters　from　his　book。　We　may　notice　one　direct　effect　of　his　speeches：　they　were　the　most　powerful　influence　in　determining　the　resumption　of　cash　payments。　In　his　private　life　he　associated　much　with　Bentham　and　James　Mill。　　　　　James　Mill；　like　Bentham　and　Austin；　was　a　staunch　adherent　of　the　deductive　method；　and　it　was　partly　through　Mill's　influence　that　Ricardo　adopted　it。　Mill　was　his　greatest　friend；　it　was　he　who　persuaded　him　both　to　go　into　Parliament；　and　to　publish　his　great　book。　Ricardo's　political　opinions　in　fact　merely　reflect　those　of　James　Mill；　and　the　other　philosophical　Radicals　of　the　time；　though　in　Political　Economy　he　was　their　teacher。　Ricardo　reigned　without　dispute　in　English　Economics　from　1817　to　1848；　and　though　his　supremacy　has　since　then　been　often　challenged；　it　is　by　no　means　entirely　overthrown。　His　influence　was　such　that　his　method　became　the　accepted　method　of　economists；　and　to　understand　how　great　the　influence　of　method　may　be；　you　should　turn　from　his　writings　and　those　of　his　followers　to　Adam　Smith；　or　to　Sir　Henry　Maine；　where　you　come　in　contact　with　another　cast　of　mind；　and　will　find　yourselves　in　a　completely　different　mental　atmosphere。　Now　what　is　this　deductive　method　which　Ricardo　employed？　It　consists　in　reasoning　from　one　or　two　extremely　simple　propositions　down　to　a　series　of　new　laws。　He　always　employed　this　method；　taking　as　his　great　postulate　that　all　men　will　on　all　matters　follow　their　own　interests。　The　defect　of　the　assumption　lies　in　its　too　great　simplicity　as　a　theory　of　human　nature。　Men　do　not　always　know　their　own　interest。　Bagehot　points　out　that　the　*10　householders；　who　were　enfranchised　by　the　first　Reform　Bill；　were　after　1832　the　most　heavily　taxed　class　in　the　community；　though　the　remedy　was　in　their　own　hands；　because　they　were　ignorant　and　apathetic。　And　even　when　men　know　their　interests；　they　will　not　always　follow　them；　other　influences　intervene；　custom；　prejudice；　even　fear。　Cairnes　frankly　admits　these　defects　in　Ricardo's　method；　but　it　took　economists　some　thirty　or　forty　years　to　learn　the　necessity　of　testing　their　conclusions　by　facts　and　observations。　Since　1848　their　attitude　has　improved；　it　is　now　seen　that　we　must　insist　upon　the　verification　of　our　premisses；　and　examine　our　deductions　by　the　light　of　history。　　　　　Ricardo　has　deduced　from　very　simple　data　a　famous　law　of　industrial　progress。　In　an　advancing　community；　he　says；　rent　must　rise；　profits　fall；　and　wages　remain　about　the　same。　We　shall　find　from　actual　facts　that　this　law　has　been　often　true；　and　is　capable　of　legitimate　application；　though　Mr　Cliffe…Leslie　would　repudiate　it　altogether；　but　it　cannot　be　accepted　as　a　universal　law。　The　historical　method；　on　the　other　hand；　is　impotent　of　itself　to　give　us　a　law　of　progress；　because　so　many　of　the　facts　on　which　it　relies　are；　in　Economics；　concealed　from　us。　By　the　historical　method　we　mean　the　actual　observation　of　the　course　of　economic　history；　and　the　deduction　from　it　of　laws　of　economic　progress；　and　this　method；　while　most　useful　in　checking　the　results　of　deduction　is；　by　itself；　full　of　danger　from　its　tendency　to　set　up　imperfect　generalisations。　Sir　H。　Maine　and　M。　Laveleye；　for　instance；　have　taken　an　historical　survey　of　land…tenure；　and　drawn　from　it　the　conclusion　that　the　movement　of　property　in　land　is　always　from　collective　to　individual　ownership；　and　Mr　Ingram；　again；　alluding　to　this　law；　accepts　it　as　true　that　there　is　a　natural　tendency　towards　private　property　in　land。　He　can　build　his　argument　on　the　universal　practice　from　Java　to　the　Shetlands；　and　it　would　seem　a　legitimate　conclusion　that　the　tendency　will　be　constant。　Yet　there　is　at　the　present　day　a　distinct　movement　towards　replacing　private　by　collective　ownership；　due　to　the　gradual　change　in　the　opinions　of　men　as　to　the　basis　on　which　property　in　land　should　rest。　Mill；　in　1848；　argued　that　where　the　cultivator　was　not　also　the　owner；　there　was　no　justification　for　private　ownership；　later　in　his　life；　he　advocated　the　confiscation　of　the　unearned　increment　in　land。　If　we　ask；　'Was　he　right？'　the　answer　must　be：　Every　single　institution　of　society　is　brought　to　the　test　of　utility　and　general　national　well…being；　hence；　private　property　in　land；　if　it　fails　under　this　test；　will　not　continue。　So　too　with　the　rate　of　interest：　older　economists　have　insisted　on　the　necessity　of　a　certain　rate；　in　order　to　encourage　the　accumulation　of　capital；　but　we　may　fairly　ask　whether　the　rate　of　remuneration　for　the　use　of　capital　is　not　too　high…whether　we　could　not　obtain　sufficient　capital　on　easier　terms？　These　considerations　show　that；　in　predicting　the　actual　course　of　industrial　progress；　we　must　not　be　content　to　say　that　because　there　has　been　a　movement　in　a　certain　direction　in　the　past…for　example；　one　from　status　to　contract…it　will　therefore　continue　in　the　future。　We　must　always　apply　the　test；　Does　it　fit　in　with　the　urgent　present　requirements　of　human　nature？　　　　　Ricardo's　influence　on　legislation；　to　which　I　have　already　alluded；　was　twofold；　it　bore　directly　upon　the　special　subject　of　currency　and　finance；　and；　what　is　more　remarkable；　it　affected　legislation　in　general。　As　regards　finance；　his　pamphlets　are　the　real　justification　of　our　monetary　system；　and　are　still　read　by　all　who　would　maste