lectures on the industrial revolution in england-第22部分

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mphlets　are　the　real　justification　of　our　monetary　system；　and　are　still　read　by　all　who　would　master　the　principles　of　currency。　With　respect　to　other　legislation；　he　and　his　friends　have　the　great　credit　of　having　helped　to　remove　not　merely　restrictions　on　trade　in　general；　but　those　in　particular　which　bore　hardest　on　the　labourer。　When　Joseph　Hume；　in　1824；　proposed　the　repeal　of　the　Combination　Laws；　he　said　he　had　been　moved　thereto　by　Ricardo。　But　though　Ricardo　advocated　the　removal　of　restrictions　which　injured　the　labourer；　he　deprecated　all　restrictions　in　his　favour；　he　ridiculed　the　Truck　Acts；　and　supported　the　opposition　of　the　manufacturers　to　the　Factory　Acts　…　an　opposition　which；　be　it　remembered；　though　prompted　by　mere　class　interest；　was　also　supported　in　the　name　and　on　the　then　accepted　principles　of　economic　science。　　　　　In　this　way　Ricardo　became　the　prop；　as　I　have　called　him；　of　the　middle　classes。　Throughout　his　treatise　there　ran　the　idea　of　natural　law；　which　seemed　to　carry　with　it　a　sort　of　justification　of　the　existing　constitution　of　society　as　inevitable。　Hence　his　doctrines　have　proved　the　readiest　weapons　wherewith　to　combat　legislative　interference　or　any　proposals　to　modify　existing　institutions。　Hence；　too；　his　actual　conclusions；　although　gloomy　and　depressing；　were　accepted　without　question　by　most　of　his　contemporaries。　Another　school；　however；　has　grown　up；　accepting　his　conclusions　as　true　under　existing　social　conditions；　but　seeing　through　the　fallacy　of　his　'natural　law。'　These　are　the　Socialists；　through　whom　Ricardo　has　become　a　terror　to　the　middle　classes。　The　Socialists　believe　that；　by　altering　the　social　conditions　which　he　assumed　to　be　unalterable；　Ricardo's　conclusions　can　be　escaped。　Karl　Marx　and　Lassalle　have　adopted　Ricardo's　law　of　wages；　but　they　have　argued　that；　since　by　this　law　wages；　under　our　present　social　institutions；　can　never　be　more　than　sufficient　for　the　bare　subsistence　of　the　labourer；　we　are　bound　to　reconsider　the　whole　foundation　of　society。　Marx　also　simply　accepts　Ricardo's　theory　of　value。　The　value　of　products；　said　Ricardo；　is　determined　by　the　quantity　of　the　labour　expended　on　them；　and　Marx　uses　this　statement　to　deduce　the　theorem　that　the　whole　value　of　the　produce　rightly　belongs　to　labour；　and　that　by　having　to　share　the　produce　with　capital　the　labourer　is　robbed。　　　　　Mr　Henry　George；　again；　the　latest　Socialist　writer；　is　purely　and　entirely　a　disciple　of　Ricardo。　The　whole　aim　of　his　treatise；　Progress　and　Poverty；　is　to　prove　that　rent　must　rise　as　society　advances　and　wealth　increases。　It　is　not　the　labourer；　Ricardo　reasoned；　who　will　be　the　richer　for　this　progress；　nor　the　capitalist；　but　the　owner　of　land。　Mr　George's　theory　of　progress　is　the　same。　Putting　aside　his　attempt　to　show　a　connection　between　the　laws　of　interest　and　wages；　which　he　contends　will　rise　and　fall　together；　there　is　little　difference　between　his　conclusions　and　Ricardo's。　Others　before　Mr　George　had　clearly　enough　seen　this　bearing　of　the　law　of　rent。　Roesler；　the　German　economist；　says：　'Political　Economy　would　only　be　a　theory　of　human　degradation　and　impoverishment；　if　the　law　of　rent　worked　without　modification。'　　　　　Now　let　us　see　what　are　the　assumptions　on　which　Ricardo　grounded　his　law　about　the　course　of　rent；　wages；　and　profits　in　a　progressive　community。　The　pressure　of　population；　he　argued；　makes　men　resort　to　inferior　soils；　hence　the　cost　of　agricultural　produce　increases；　and　therefore　rent　rises。　But　why　will　profits　fall？　Because　they　depend　upon　the　cost　of　labour；　and　the　main　element　in　determining　this　is　the　cost　of　the　commodities　consumed　by　the　workmen。　Ricardo　assumes　that　the　standard　of　comfort　is　fixed。　If；　therefore；　the　cost　of　a　quartern　loaf　increases；　and　the　labourer　is　to　obtain　the　same　number　of　them；　his　wages　must　rise；　and　profits　therefore　must　fall。　Lastly；　why　should　wages　remain　stationary？　Because；　assuming　that　the　labourer's　standard　of　comfort　is　fixed；　a　rise　of　wages　or　a　fall　in　prices　will　only　lead　to　a　proportionate　increase　of　population。　The　history　of　the　theory　of　rent　is　very　interesting；　but　it　is　out　of　our　road；　so　I　can　only　lightly　touch　upon　it。　Adam　Smith　had　no　clear　or　consistent　theory　at　all　on　the　subject；　and　no　distinct　views　as　to　the　relation　between　rent　and　price。　The　modern　doctrine　is　first　found　in　a　pamphlet　by　a　practical　farmer　named　James　Anderson；　published　in　1777；　the　year　after　the　appearance　of　The　Wealth　of　Nations；　but　it　attracted　little　attention　till　it　was　simultaneously　re…stated　by　Sir　Edward　West；　and　by　Malthus　in　his　pamphlet　on　the　Corn　Laws。　Had　the　theory；　however；　been　left　in　the　shape　in　which　they　stated　it；　it　would　have　had　little　influence。　It　was　Ricardo；　who；　pUzzled　by　the　question　of　rent；　snatched　at　the　theory；　and　gave　it　currency　by　embodying　it　in　his　whole　doctrine　of　value　and　of　economic　development。　　　　　Ricardo's　two　great　positive　conclusions　are：　first；　that　the　main　cause　of　rent　is　the　necessity　of　cultivating　inferior　soil　as　civilisation　advances；　and　secondly；　that　rent　is　not　the　cause　but　the　result　of　price。　The　theory　has　been　disputed　and　criticised；　but　nearly　all　the　objections　have　come　from　persons　who　have　not　understood　it。　We　may　say　conclusively　that；　as　a　theory　of　the　causes　of　rent；　apart　from　that　general　doctrine　of　industrial　development　of　which　in　Ricardo　it　forms　a　part；　the　theory　is　true。　The　one　formidable　objection　which　can　be　urged　against　it　is　that　the　rise　in　rents　in　modern　times　has　been　due　not　so　much　to　the　necessity　of　resorting　to　inferior　soils；　as　to　improvements　in　agriculture；　but　when　Professor　Thorold　Rogers　attacks　the　theory　on　this　ground；　he　merely　proves　that　Ricardo　has　overlooked　some　important　causes　which　have　led　to　an　increase　of　rents　since　the　Middle　Ages。　　　　　What；　then；　are　we　justified　in　stating　to　be　the　ultimate　causes　of　rent？　First；　the　fertility　of　the　soil　and　the　skill　of　the　cultivator；　by　which　he　is　able　to　raise　a　larger　produce　than　is　necessary　for　his　own　subsistence；　this　makes　rent　physically　possible。　Next；　the　fact　that　land　is　limited　in　quantity　and　quality；　that　is；　that　the　supply　of　the　land　most　desirable　from　its　situation　and　fertility　is　less　than　the　demand：　this　allows　of　rent　being　exacted。　The　early　colonists　in　America　paid　no　rent；　because　there　was　an　abundance　of　land　open　to　every　one；　but　twenty　years　later；　rent　was　paid　because　population　had　grown。　Let　us　see　exactly　what　happens　in　such　a　case。　A　town　is　founded　on　the　sea…coast；　as　it　grows；　the　people　in　that　town　have　to　get　some　of　their　food　from　a　distance。　Assume　that　the　cost　of　raising　that　corn　and　bringing　it　to　the　town　is　20s。；　and　that　the　cost　of　raising　it　close　to　the　town　is　15s。　for　every　five　bushels　（we　will　suppose　that　in　the　latter　instance　the　cost　of　carriage　is　nil）；　then；　as　both　quantities　will　be　sold　at　the　same　price；　the　surplus　5s。　In　the　latter　case　will　go　for　rent。　Thus　we　find　that　rent　has　arisen　because　corn　is　brought　into　the　market　at　different　costs。　In　twenty　years　more；　rents　will　have　risen　still　further；　because　soils　still　more　inferior　in　fertility　or　situation　will　have　been　brought　into　cultivation。　But　the　rise　of　rent　is　not　directly　due　to　the　cultivation　of　inferior　soils；　the　direct　cause　is　the　increase　of　population　which　has　made　that　cultivation　necessary。　　　　　Going　back　to　the　question　raised　by　Professor　Rogers；　as　to　the　effect　of　agricultural　improvements　on　rent；　we　may　notice　that　the　controversy　on　this　question　was　first　fought　out　between　Ricardo　and　Malthus。　Ricardo　thought　that　improvements　would　lead　to　a　fall　in　rents；　Malthus　maintained　the　opposite；　and　he　was　right。　Take　an　acre　of　land　close　to　the　town；　such　as　we　were　considering　above；　with　an　original　produce　of　five　bushels　of　wheat；　but　which；　under　improved　cultivation；　yields　forty　bushels。　If　the　price　of　wheat　remains　the　same；　and　all　the　land　under　cultivation　has　been　improved　to　an　equivalent　extent；　the　rent　will　now　be　5s。　multiplied　by　eight。　Yet　there　are　a　few　historical　instances　where　agricultural　improvements　have　been　followed　by　a　fall　in　rents。　For　instance；　during　the　Thirty　Years'　War　the　Swiss　supplied　Western　Germany　with　corn；　and　introduced　improvements　into　their　agriculture；　in　order　to　meet　the　pressure　of　the　demand。　After　the　peace　of　Westphalia　the　demand　fell　off；　the　Swiss　found　they　were　producing　more　than　they　could　sell；　prices　fell；　and；　as　a　consequence；　rents　fell　also。　　　　　Professor　Rogers　has　further　objected　to　Ricardo's　theory　that　it　does　not　explain　the　historical　origin　of　rent。　The　term　'rent'　is　ambiguous；　it　has　been　used　for　the　payment　of　knight…service；　for　the　performances　of　religious　offices；　for　serfs'　labour　and　the　sum　of　money　for　which　it　was　commuted。　In　Ricardo's　mouth　it　meant　only　the　money　rent　paid　by　a　capitalist　farmer；　expecting　the　usual　rates　of　profits；　but　it　is　quite　true　that　these　modern　competition　rents　did　not　arise　till　about　the　time　of　James　I。　　　　　The　last　point　in　the　theory　of　rent　is　the　relation　between　rent　and　price。　Before　Ricardo's　time　most　practical　men　thought　that　rent　was　a　cause　of　price。　Ricardo　answered；　There　is　land　cultivated　in　England　which　pays　no　rent；　or　at　least　there　is　capital　employed　in　agriculture　which　pays　none；　therefore　there　is　in　the　market　corn　which　has　paid　no　rent；　and　it　is　the　cost　of　raising　this　corn；　which　is　grown　on　the　poorest　land；　that　determines　the　price　of　all　the　corn　in　the　same　market。　Probably　he　was　right　in　his　statement　that　there　is　land　in　England　which　pays　no　rent；　but　even　if　all　land　and　all　farmers'　capital　paid　rent；　it　would　not　affect　the　argument；　which　says　that　rent　is　not　the　cause　but　the　result　of　price。　We　may　conclude　that　at　the　present　day　rent　is　determined　by　two　things：　the　demand　of　the　population；　and　the　quantity　and　quality　of　land　available。　These　determine　it　by　fixing　the　price　of　corn。　　　　　Now　let　us　turn　to　facts；　to　see　how　our　theories　work。　We　will　take　the　rise　in　rents　between　1790　and　1830；　and　ask　how　it　came　about。　The　main　causes　were　…　（1）　improvements　in　agriculture；　th