lectures on the industrial revolution in england-第23部分

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1790　and　1830；　and　ask　how　it　came　about。　The　main　causes　were　…　（1）　improvements　in　agriculture；　the　chief　of　which　were　the　destruction　of　the　commonfield　system；　rendering　possible　the　rotation　of　crops；　the　consolidation　of　farms　with　the　farmhouse　in　the　centre　of　the　holding；　and　the　introduction　of　machinery　and　manures；　（2）　the　great　growth　of　population；　stimulated　by　mechanical　inventions；　（3）　a　series　of　bad　harvests；　which　raised　the　price　of　corn　to　an　unparalleled　height；　（4）　the　limitation　of　supply；　the　population　having　to　be　fed　with　the　produce　of　England　itself；　since；　during　the　first　part　of　the　period　all　supplies　from　abroad　were　cut　off　by　war；　and　later；　higher　and　higher　protective　duties　were　imposed；　culminating　in　the　famous　corn　bill　of　1815。　After　1815；　however；　a　fall　in　rents　…　not　a　very　great　one…took　place；　a　process　which　greatly　puzzled　people　at　the　time。　It　was　the　consequence　of　a　sudden　coincidence　of　agricultural　improvements　and　good　harvests；　there　was　for　a　time　an　over　production　of　corn；　and　wheat　fell　in　price　from　90s。　to　35s。　This　fact　is　the　explanation　of　Ricardo's　mistaken　idea　that　agricultural　improvements　tend　to　reduce　rents。　Having　no　historical　turn　of　mind；　such　as　Malthus　had；　he　did　not　recognise　that　this　effect　of　agricultural　improvements　was　quite　accidental。　This　case；　indeed；　and　the　instance　of　Switzerland　given　above；　with　the　similar　events　in　Germany　about　1820；　are　the　only　historical　examples　of　such　an　effect。　For　a　time　there　was　great　agricultural　distress；　the　farmers　could　not　get　their　rents　reduced　in　proportion　to　the　fall　in　prices；　and　many；　in　spite　of　the　enormous　profits　they　had　before　made　under　beneficial　leases；　were　ruined；　the　farming　class　never　wholly　recovered　till　the　repeal　of　the　Corn　Laws。　But　the　fall　was　temporary　and　exceptional。　Taking　the　period　as　a　whole　its　striking　feature　is　the　rise　of　rents；　and　this　rise　was　due　to　the　causes　stated：　increased　demand　on　the　part　of　an　increased　population；　and　limitation　of　quantity；　with　improved　quality；　of　the　land　available。　　　　　I　have　hitherto　been　considering　the　theory　of　agricultural　rents；　I　now　pass　to　a　subject　of　perhaps　greater　present　importance　…　ground…rents　in　towns。　If　the　rise　in　the　rent　of　agricultural　lands　has　been　great；　the　rise　in　that　of　urban　properties　has　been　still　more　striking。　A　house　in　Lombard　Street；　the　property　of　the　Drapers'　Company；　was　in　1668　let　for　*25；　in　1887　the　site　alone　was　let　for　*2600。　How　do　we　account　for　this？　It　is　the　effect　of　the　growth　of　great　towns　and　of　the　improvements　which　enable　greater　wealth　to　be　produced　in　them；　owing　to　the　development　of　the　arts；　and　to　the　extension　of　banking　and　credit。　Are　town　rents　then　a　cause　of　the　rise　in　prices？　Certainly　not。　Rent　may　be　an　element　in　price；　but　the　actual　amount　of　rent　paid　depends　upon　these　two　things：　the　demand　of　the　population　for　commodities；　which　determines　price；　and　the　value　of　a　particular　site　for　purposes　of　business。　　　　　These　considerations　bring　us　to　the　question　now　sometimes　raised：　is　rent　a　thing　which　the　State　can　abolish？　Is　it　a　human　institution；　or　the　result　of　physical　causes　beyond　our　control？　If　we　abolish　agricultural　rent；　the　result　would　simply　be；　as　Ricardo　says；　that　the　rent　would　go　into　the　pockets　of　the　farmers；　and　some　of　them　would　live　like　gentlemen。　Rent　itself　is　the　result　of　physical　causes；　but　it　is　within　our　power　to　say　who　shall　receive　the　rent。　This　seems　a　fact　of　immense　importance；　but　the　extent　of　its　significance　depends　largely　on　the　future　course　of　rent　in　England；　and　so　we　are　bound　to　inquire　whether　Ricardo　was　right　in　assuming　that　rents　must　necessarily　rise　in　a　progressing　state。　Many　think　the　contrary；　and　that　we　are　now　on　the　eve　of　a　certain　and　permanent　fall　in　agricultural　rents；　and　if　rents　continue　steadily　to　fall；　the　question　will　become　one　of　increasing　insignificance。　As　means　of　communication　improve；　we　add　more　and　more　to　the　supply　of　land　available　for　satisfying　the　wants　of　a　particular　place；　and　as　the　supply　increases；　which　it　is　likely　to　do　to　an　increasing　extent；　the　price　of　land　must　fall。　Social　causes　have　also　influenced　rents　in　England；　and　social　changes　are　probably　imminent；　which　will　at　once　reduce　the　value　of　land　for　other　than　agricultural　purposes；　and　increase　the　amount　of　it　devoted　to　agriculture。　Such　changes　would　likewise　tend　to　diminish　rent。　We　may　say　therefore　that；　since　there　are　these　indications　of　a　permanent　fall　in　rents；　so　great　a　revolution　as　the　transference　of　rent　from　the　hands　of　private　owners　to　the　nation　would　not　be　justified　by　the　amount　which　the　nation　would　acquire。　The　loss　and　damage　of　such　a　revolution　would　not　be　adequately　repaid。　　　　　But　will　rent　in　towns　fall？　Here　it　is　impossible　to　predict。　For　instance；　we　cannot　say　whether　London　will　continue　to　grow　as　rapidly　as　it　has　done　heretofore。　Now　it　is　the　monetary　centre　of　the　world；　owing　to　the　greater　use　of　telegraphy；　it　is　possible　that　it　may　not　retain　this　pre…eminence。　The　decay　of　the　provincial　towns　was　largely　due　to　the　growth　of　great　estates；　which　enabled　their　proprietors　to　live　and　spend　in　London；　but　if　changes　come　to　break　up　these　large　properties；　London　will　cease　to　be　the　centre　of　fashion；　or　at　any　rate　to　have　such　a　large　fashionable　population。　Politics；　moreover；　are　certainly　tending　to　centre　less　in　London。　And　further　inventions　in　the　means　of　locomotion　and　the　greater　use　of　electricity　may　result　in　causing　a　greater　diffusion　of　population。

XIII。　Two　Theories　of　Economic　Progress

　　　　Since　Mill；　in　1848；　wrote　his　chapter　on　the　future　of　the　working　classes；　the　question　of　the　distribution　of　wealth　has　become　of　still　greater　importance。　We　cannot　look　round　on　the　political　phenomena　of　to…day　without　seeing　that　this　question　is　at　the　root　of　them。　We　see　the　perplexity　in　which　men　stand；　and　the　divisions　springing　up　in　our　great　political　parties；　because　of　the　uncertainty　of　politicians　how　to　grapple　with　it。　Political　power　is　now　widely　diffused；　and　whatever　may　be　the　evils　of　democracy；　this　good　has　come　of　it；　that　it　has　forced　men　to　open　their　eyes　to　the　misery　of　the　masses；　and　to　inquire　more　zealously　as　to　the　possibility　of　a　better　distribution　of　wealth。　Economists　have　to　answer　the　question　whether　it　is　possible　for　the　mass　of　the　working　classes　to　raise　themselves　under　the　present　conditions　of　competition　and　private　property。　Ricardo　and　Henry　George　have　both　answered；　No；　and　the　former　has　formulated　a　law　of　economic　development；　according　to　which；　as　we　have　seen；　rent　must　rise；　profits　and　interest　fall；　and　wages　remain　stationary；　or　perhaps　fall。　Now　is　there　any　relation　of　cause　and　effect　between　this　rise　in　rent　and　fall　in　wages？　Ricardo　thought　not。　According　to　his　theory；　profits　and　wages　are　fixed　independently　of　rent；　a　rise　in　rent　and　a　fall　in　wages　might　be　due　to　the　same　cause；　but　the　one　was　not　the　result　of　the　other；　and　the　rise　in　rent　would　not　be　at　the　expense　of　the　labourers。　Yet　practical　opinion　goes　in　the　opposite　direction。　From　the　evidence　of　farmers　and　land…agents　we　see　that　it　is　widely　believed　that　the　high　rents　exacted　from　farmers　have　been　partly　taken　out　of　the　pockets　of　the　labourers。　'If　there　is　a　fall　in　the　price　of　corn；　agricultural　wages　will　fall；　unless　there　is　a　corresponding　fall　in　rent；'　was　said　before　a　Parliamentary　Commission　in　1834。　Ten　years　ago　the　connection　was　admitted　in　Ireland；　and　the　Land　Act　of　1870　was　founded　on　the　belief　that　rack…rents　were　not　really　the　surplus　left　when　capital　and　labour　had　received　their　fair　returns；　and　that　the　only　limit　to　the　rise　of　rents　was　the　bare　necessities　of　the　peasantry。　In　England　it　has　been　assumed　that　wages　and　profits　have　fixed　lines　of　their　own　independent　of　rent；　but　this　is　not　universally　true；　where　the　farmers　have　suffered　from　high　rents；　they　in　their　turn　have　ground　down　the　labourers。　Thus　even　in　England　rent　has　been　exacted　from　the　labourer；　and　this　is　not　an　opinion　but　a　fact；　testified　by　the　evidence　of　agents；　clergy；　and　farmers　themselves。　What　appears　accurate　to　say　about　the　matter　is；　that　high　rents　have　in　some　cases　been　one　cause　of　low　wages。　　　　　This　direct　effect　of　rent　on　wages　under　certain　conditions　is　quite　distinct　from　the　'brazen　law　of　wages'　which　Lassalle　took　from　Ricardo。　It　is　impossible；　according　to　Ricardo；　for　labourers　to　improve　their　position　under　existing　industrial　conditions；　for　if　wages　rise；　population　will　advance　also；　and　wages　return　to　their　own　level；　there　cannot　therefore　be　any　permanent　rise　in　them。　Ricardo；　indeed；　did　not　deny　that　the　standard　of　comfort　varied　in　different　countries；　and　in　the　same　country　at　different　times；　but　these　admissions　he　only　made　parenthetically；　he　did　not　seem　to　think　they　seriously　touched　the　question　of　population；　and　they　did　not　affect　his　main　conclusions。　For　instance；　he　argues　that　a　tax　on　corn　will　fall　entirely　on　profits；　since　the　labourer　is　already　receiving　the　lowest　possible　wages。　This　statement　may　be　true　with　regard　to　the　very　lowest　class　of　labourers；　but　it　certainly　does　not　apply　to　artisans；　nor　to　a　large　proportion　of　English　working　men　at　the　present　time。　With　them；　at　any　rate；　it　is　not　true　that　they　are　already　receiving　the　lowest　possible　wage；　nor　that　there　is　an　invincible　bar　to　their　progress。　Let　us　turn　to　the　test　of　facts　and　see　if　wages　have　risen　since　1846。　Henry　George　says　that　free　trade　has　done　nothing　for　the　labourer'。　Mill；　in　1848；　predicted　the　same。　Professor　Cairnes　came　to　a　very　similar　conclusion；　writing　in　1874　he　said；　that　'the　large　addition　to　the　wealth　of　the　country　has　gone　neither　to　profit　nor　to　wages；　nor　yet　to　the　public　at　large；　but　to　swell。。。　the　rent…roll　of　the　owner　of　the　soil。'　Yet　it　is　a　fact　that　though　the　cost　of　living　has　undoubtedly　increased；　wages　have　risen　in　a　higher　ratio。　Take　the　instance　of　a　carpenter　as　a　fair　average　specimen　of　the　artisan　class。　The　necessaries　of　a　carpenter's　f