lectures on the industrial revolution in england-第25部分

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ad　both　cheap　and　fixed　in　price；　his　general　position　has　improved。　　　　　What　other　agencies　besides　Free　Trade　have　been　at　work　to　bring　about　this　improvement？　Factory　legislation　has　raised　the　condition　of　women　and　children　by　imposing　a　limit　on　the　hours　of　work；　and　especially　the　sanitary　environment　of　the　labourer；　the　factory　laws　seek　to　regulate　the　whole　life　of　the　workshop。　Trades…Unions；　again；　have　done　much　to　avert　social　and　industrial　disorder；　and　have　taught　workmen；　by　organisation　and　self…help；　to　rely　upon　themselves。　Herein　lies　the　difference　between　the　English　and　the　Continental　workman；　the　former；　because　he　has　been　free　from　voluntary　associations；　does　not　look　to　the　State　or　to　revolutionary　measures　to　better　his　position。　For　proof　of　this；　it　is　enough　to　compare　the　parliamentary　programme　of　the　last　Trades…Unions　Congress　with　the　proceedings　of　the　international　at　Geneva。　English　Trades…Unions　resort　to　a　constitutional　agitation　which　involves　no　danger　to　the　State；　indeed；　as　I　have　said；　their　action　averts　violent　industrial　dislocations。　And　beyond　this；　Trades…Unions　have　achieved　some　positive　successes　for　the　cause　of　labour。　By　means　of　their　accumulated　funds　workmen　have　been　able　to　hold　out　for　better　prices　for　their　labour；　and　the　Unions　have　further　acted　as　provident　societies　by　means　of　which　their　members　can　lay　up　sums　against　sickness　or　old　age。　The　mischief　and　wastefulness　of　strikes　is　generally　enough　insisted　on；　but　it　is　not　as　often　remembered　that　the　largest　Unions　have　sanctioned　the　fewest　strikes；　the　Amalgamated　Engineers；　who　have　46；000　members；　and　branches　in　Canada　and　India；　expended　only　six　per　cent。　of　their　income　on　strikes　from　1867　to　1877。　The　leaders　of　such　a　great　Union　are　skilful；　well…informed　men；　who　know　it　to　be　in　their　interest　to　avoid　strikes。　　　　　Lastly；　we　must　not　forget　to　mention　the　great　Co…operative　Societies；　which　in　their　modern　shape　date　from　the　Rochdale　Pioneers'　Store；　founded　in　1844；　under　the　inspiration　of　Robert　Owen's　teaching；　though　the　details　of　his　plan　were　therein　abandoned。　These；　like　Trades…Unions；　have　taught　the　power　and　merit　of　voluntary　association　and　self…help。　At　present；　however；　they　are　only　big　shops　for　the　sale　of　retail　goods；　through　which　the　workman　gets　rid　of　the　retail　dealer；　and　shares　himself　in　the　profits　of　the　business；　by　receiving　at　the　end　of　each　quarter　a　dividend　on　his　purchases。　Such　stores；　however　useful　in　cheapening　goods；　and　at　the　same　time　encouraging　thrift；　do　not　represent　the　ultimate　object　of　co…operation。　That　object　is　to　make　the　workman　his　own　employer。　Hitherto　the　movement　has　not　been　successful　in　establishing　productive　societies；　the　two　great　difficulties　in　the　way　being　apparently　the　inability　of　a　committee　of　workmen　to　manage　a　business　well；　and　their　unwillingness　to　pay　sufficiently　high　wages　for　superintendence。　The　chief　obstacles　are　thus　moral；　and　to　be　found　in　the　character　of　the　workmen；　and　their　want　of　education；　but　as　their　character　and　education　improve；　there　is　no　reason　why　these　difficulties　should　not　vanish。　　　　　Such　are　the　chief　agencies　to　which　we　trace　the　improvement　in　the　position　of　the　labourer　during　the　last　forty　years。　At　the　beginning　of　this　period　Mill　insisted　on　one　thing　as　of　paramount　importance；　namely　restriction　upon　the　increase　of　population；　and　without　this　he　believed　all　improvement　to　be　impossible。　Yet　we　find　that　during　this　period　the　rate　of　increase　has　not　slackened。　It　is　nearly　as　great　now　as　between　1831　and　1841。　It　was　greater　during　the　last　decade　than　it　had　been　since　1841。　On　the　other　hand；　there　has　undoubtedly　been　an　enormous　emigration　which　has　lightened　the　supply　of　labour。　Three　millions　and　a　half　of　people　have　emigrated　from　Great　Britain　since　1846。　　　　　The　question　which　now　most　deeply　concerns　us　is；　Will　the　same　causes　operate　in　the　future？　Will　Free　Trade　continue　to　be　beneficial？　Will　our　wealth　continue　to　increase　and　our　trade　to　expand？　On　this　point　a　decided　prediction　is　of　course　impossible。　Competition　in　neutral　markets　is　becoming　keener　and　keener；　and　we　may　be　driven　out　of　some　of　them；　and　thus　the　national　aggregate　of　wealth　be　lessened。　But；　on　the　other　hand；　we　have　reason　to　believe　that　increased　supplies　of　corn　from　America　and　Australia　will　give　an　enormous　impetus　to　trade。　As　in　the　past　so　in　the　future　corn　is　the　commodity　of　most　importance　to　the　labourer；　and　if　the　supply　of　corn　becomes　more　constant；　trade　will　be　steadier　and　wages　will　probably　rise。　Besides；　cheap　corn　means　that　all　over　the　world　the　purchasing　power　of　consumers　is　increased；　and　this　again　will　stimulate　trade。　So　that　in　this　respect　the　labourers'　outlook　is　a　hopeful　one。　As　to　emigration　also；　there　is　no　reason　to　suppose　that　there　will　be　any　check　on　this　relief　to　the　labourer　for　the　next　fifty　years　at　least。　Again；　there　is　every　prospect　of　co…operation　and　even　productive　co…operation　making　great　progress　in　the　future；　though　I　do　not　think　that　the　latter　is　likely　for　some　time　to　be　an　important　factor　in　improving　the　status　of　the　workmen。　The　moral　obstacles　to　cooperative　production　which　I　mentioned　will　disappear　but　slowly。　In　certain　directions；　however；　it　is　likely　to　develop；　I　mean　in　the　direction　of　manufacturing　for　the　great　Wholesale　Co…operative　Societies；　because　here　the　market　is　secured。　Trades…Unions　too　are　likely　to　expand。　　　　　Turning　to　the　moral　condition　of　the　workpeople；　we　find　an　improvement　greater　even　than　their　material　progress。　When　we　see　or　read　of　what　goes　on　in　the　streets　of　our　great　towns；　we　think　badly　enough　of　their　morality；　but　those　who　have　had　most　experience　in　manufacturing　districts　are　of　opinion　that　the　moral　advance；　as　manifested；　for　example；　in　temperance；　in　orderly　behaviour；　in　personal　appearance；　in　dress；　has　been　very　great。　For　the　improvement　in　the　inner　life　of　workshops　as　early　as　1834；　take　the　evidence　of　Francis　Place；　a　friend　of　James　Mill；　before　a　Committee　of　the　House　of　Commons　in　that　year。　He　told　the　Committee　that；　when　he　was　a　boy；　he　used　to　hear　songs；　such　as　he　could　not　repeat；　sung　in　respectable　shops　by　respectable　people；　it　was　so　no　longer；　and　he　was　at　a　loss　how　to　account　for　the　change。　Similar　statements　are　made　by　workmen　at　the　present　day。　Conversation；　they　say；　is　bad　at　times；　but　opinion　is　setting　more　and　more　against　immoral　talk。　The　number　of　subjects　which　interest　workpeople　is　much　greater　than　before；　and　the　discussion　of　the　newspaper　is　supplanting　the　old　foul　language　of　the　workshop。　We　have　here　an　indirect　effect　of　the　extension　of　the　suffrage。　Add　to　this　the　statistics　of　drunkenness。　In　1855　there　were　nearly　20；000　persons　convicted　for　drunkenness；　in　1880　there　were　not　many　more　than　11；000。　　　　　Again；　the　relations　between　workmen　and　employers　are　certainly　much　better。　The　old　life；　as　described　by　Owen　and　Cobbett；　of　an　apprentice　in　the　workshop；　or　a　boarded　labourer　in　the　farmhouse；　is　at　first　sight　most　attractive；　and　the　facts　told　to　the　Commission　of　1806　seem　to　realise　the　ideal　life　of　industry。　The　relations　between　masters　and　workmen　were　then　extremely　close；　but　this　close　relationship　had　its　bad　side。　There　was　often　great　brutality　and　gross　vice。　The　workman　was　at　his　employer's　mercy。　In　Norfolk　the　farmer　used　to　horsewhip　his　labouring　men；　and　his　wife　the　women。　There　existed　a　state　of　feudal　dependence；　which；　like　all　feudalism；　had　its　dark　and　light　sides。　The　close　relationship　was　distinctly　the　result　of　the　small　system　of　industry；　and　hence　it　was　shattered　by　the　power…loom　and　the　steam…engine。　When　huge　factories　were　established　there　could　no　longer　be　a　close　tie　between　the　master　and　his　men；　the　workman　hated　his　employer；　and　the　employer　looked　on　his　workmen　simply　as　hands。　From　1800　to　1843　their　mutual　relations；　as　was　admitted　by　both　parties；　were　as　bad　as　they　could　be。　There　could　be　no　union；　said　employers；　between　classes　whose　interests　were　different；　and　farmers；　contrary　to　ancient　usage；　ruthlessly　turned　off　their　men　when　work　was　slack。　The　'cash　nexus'　had　come　in；　to　protest　against　which　Carlyle　wrote　his　Past　and　Present；　but　Carlyle　was　wrong　in　supposing　that　the　old　conditions　of　labour　could　be　re…established。　Feudalism；　though　it　lingers　in　a　few　country　places；　has　virtually　disappeared　alike　in　agriculture　and　in　trade。　The　employer　cannot　offer　and　the　workman　cannot　accept　the　old　relations　of　protection　and　dependence：　for；　owing　to　the　modern　necessity　of　the　constant　movement　of　labour　from　place　to　place　and　from　one　employment　to　another；　it　has　become　impossible　to　form　lasting　relations；　and　the　essence　of　the　old　system　lay　in　the　permanency　of　the　workmen's　engagements。　Trades…Unions　too　have　done　much　to　sever　what　was　left　of　the　old　ties。　Workmen　are　now　obliged；　in　self…defence；　to　act　in　bodies。　In　every　workshop　there　are　men　who　are　attached　to　their　masters；　and　who　on　occasion　of　a　strike　do　not　care　to　come　out；　but　are　yet　compelled　to　do　so　in　the　common　interest。　Before　this　obligation　was　recognised　by　public　opinion；　the　effect　of　Unions　was；　no　doubt；　to　embitter　the　relations　between　masters　and　men。　This　was　especially　the　case　between　1840　and　1860。　　　　　Since　the　latter　date；　however；　Trades…Unions　have　distinctly　improved　the　relations　between　the　two　classes。　Employers　are　beginning　to　recognise　the　necessity　of　them；　and　the　advantages　of　being　able　to　treat　with　a　whole　body　of　workmen　through　their　most　intelligent　members。　Boards　of　Conciliation；　in　which　workmen　and　employers　sit　side　by　side；　would　be　impossible　without　Unions　to　enforce　obedience　to　their　decisions。　In　the　north　of　England；　at　the　present　moment；　it　is　the　non…unionists　who　are　rejecting　arbitration。　And　the　reason　why　such　Boards　have　succeeded　is；　because　the　employers　have　of　their　own　accord　abandoned　all　ideas　of　the　feudal　relation。　They　used　to　say　that　it　would　degrade　them　to　sit　at　the　same　board　with　their　workmen；　but　it　is　noticeable　that　directly　the　po