lectures on the industrial revolution in england-第4部分

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he　richest　marls　would　at　this　day　have　been　sheep…walks　had　there　been　any　right　o*　commonage　on　them。'　（2）　Marling；　for　there　was　plenty　of　marl　under　the　sand　everywhere；　（3）　An　excellent　rotation　of　crops…the　famous　Norfolk　four　years'　course　of　turnips；　barley；　clover　（or　clover　and　rye…grass）；　and　wheat；　（4）　The　culture　of　turnips　well　hand…hoed；　（5）　The　culture　of　clover　and　rye…grass；　（6）　The　granting　of　long　leases；　（7）　The　division　of　the　county　chiefly　into　large　farms。　'Great　farms；'　he　says；　'have　been　the　soul　of　the　Norfolk　culture；　though　in　the　eastern　part　of　the　county　there　were　little　occupiers　of　*100　a　year。　　　　　Throughout　the　whole　of　the　South　of　England；　however；　there　had　been　a　certain　amount　of　progress。　Hoeing　turnips；　according　to　Young；　was　common　in　many　parts　of　the　south　of　the　kingdom；　although　the　extensive　use　of　turnips　…　i。e。　all　their　uses　for　fattening　cattle　as　well　as　feeding　lean　sheep　…　'is　known　but　little　of；　except　in　Norfolk；　Suffolk；　and　Essex。'　Clover　husbandry；　on　the　other　hand；　was　'universal　from　the　North　of　England　to　the　further　end　of　Glamorganshire。'　Clover；　the　'great　clover；'　had　been　introduced　into　England　by　Sir　Richard　Weston　about　1645；　as　had　probably　been　turnips　also。　Potatoes　at　the　beginning　of　the　century　were　only　garden　crops。　Hemp　and　flax　were　frequently　grown；　as　were　also　hops；　which　had　been　introduced　in　the　beginning　of　the　sixteenth　century。　　　　　If　we　turn　from　the　cultivation　of　the　soil　to　the　management　and　breeding　of　live　stock；　we　shall　find　that　no　great　progress　had　been　made　in　this　branch　during　the　years　1700…1760。　Davenant　in　1700　estimated　the　net　carcase　of　black　cattle　at　370　lb。；　and　of　a　sheep　at　28　lb。　A　century　later　Eden　calculated　that　'bullocks　now　killed　in　London　weigh；　at　an　average；　800　lb。；　sheep　80　lb。；　and　lambs　about　50　lb。　each〃。　and　Young　in　1786　put　the　weight　of　bullocks　and　sheep　at　840　lb。　and　100　lb。　respectively。　But　this　improvement　seems　to　have　come　about　after　1760。　It　was　not　until　1760…85　that　Bakewell　perfected　the　new　breed　of　sheep　…　the　Leicesters　…　and　improved　the　breed　of　long…horned　cattle；　and　that　the　brothers　Culley　obtained　the　short…horn；　or　Durham　cattle；　from　the　breed　in　the　valley　of　the　Tees。　Some　improvements　in　the　breed　of　sheep；　however；　had　already　been　made。　'The　wool　of　Warwickshire；　Northamptonshire；　Lincolnshire；　and　Rutland；　with　some　parts　of　Huntingdon；　Bedford；　Buckinghamshire；　Cambridgeshire；　and　Norfolk　has　been　accounted　the　longest　and　finest　combing　wool。　But　of　late　years'　（this　was　written　in　1739）　'there　have　been　improvements　made　in　the　breed　of　sheep　by　changing　or　rams　and　sowing　of　turnips　and　grass　seeds；　and　now　there　is　some　large　fine　combing　wool　to　be　found　in　most　counties　in　England；　which　is　fine；　long；　and　soft；　fit　to　make　all　sorts　of　fine　stuff　and　hose　of。'　Still　improvements　in　feeding　sheep　were　by　no　means　universally　adopted　for　half　a　century　later。　Agricultural　implements；　too；　were　still　very　primitive；　wooden　ploughs　being　commonly　in　use；　while　the　small；　narrow…wheeled　waggon　of　the　North　held　40　or　50　bushels　with　difficulty。　　　　　Arthur　Young　constantly　attributes　much　of　the　bad　agriculture　to　the　low　rentals　prevalent。　'Of　so　little　encouragement　to　them；'　he　writes　of　the　farmers　of　Cleveland；　'is　the　lowness　of　their　rents；　that　many　large　tracts　of　land　that　yielded　good　crops　of　corn　within　thirty　years　are　now　overrun　with　whins；　brakes；　and　other　trumpery。。。。　If　I　be　demanded　how　such　ill　courses　are　to　be　stopped；　I　answer；　Raise　their　rents。　First　with　moderation；　and　if　that　does　not　bring　forth　industry；　double　them。'　At　the　same　time　Young　strongly　advocated　long　leases。　But　it　must　be　remembered　that　besides　tenant　farmers　there　were　still　a　large　number　of　freeholders　and　still　more　copyholders　either　for　life　or　by　inheritance。　　　　　On　the　whole；　though　the　evidence　on　some　points　is　somewhat　contradictory；　the　progress　of　agriculture　between　1700　and　1760　may　be　said　to　have　been　slow。　Writing　in　1770　Arthur　Young　ascribes　to　the　last　ten　years　'more　experiments；　more　discoveries；　and　more　general　good　sense　displayed　in　the　walk　of　agriculture　than　in　an　hundred　preceding　ones。'　Though　drill…husbandry　was　practised　by　Jethro　Tull；　'a　gentleman　of　Berkshire；'　as　early　as　1701；　and　his　book　was　published　in　1731；　'he　seems　to　have　had　few　followers　in　England　for　more　than　thirty　years；'　and　Young　in　1770　speaks　of　'the　new　husbandry'　as　having　sunk　with　Tull；　and　'not　again　put　in　motion　till　within　a　few　years。'　On　the　other　hand；　we　have　as　early　as　1687　Petty's　notice　of　'the　draining　of　fens；　watering　of　dry　grounds；　and　improving　of　forests　and　commons。'　Macpherson　in　the　year　1729　speaks　of　the　great　sums　lately　expended　in　the　enclosing　and　improving　of　lands；　and　Laurence　in　1727　asserts　that　'it　is　an　undoubted　truth　that　the　Art　of　Husbandry　is　of　late　years　greatly　improved；　and　accordingly　many　estates　have　already　admitted　their　utmost　improvement；　but；'　he　adds；　'much　the　greater　number　still　remains　of　such　as　are　so　far　from　being　brought　to　that　perfection　that　they　have　felt　few　or　none　of　the　effects　of　modern　arts　and　experiments。'　　　　　Still；　in　spite　of　the　ignorance　and　stupidity　of　the　farmers　and　their　use　of　wretched　implements；　the　average　produce　of　wheat　was　large。　In　1770　it　was　twenty…five　bushels　to　the　acre；　when　in　France　it　was　only　eighteen。　At　the　beginning　of　the　century　some　of　our　colonies　imported　wheat　from　the　mother　country。　The　average　export　of　grain　from　1697　to　1765　was　nearly　500；000　quarters；　while　the　imports　came　to　a　very　small　figure。　The　exports　were　sent　to　Russia；　Holland；　and　America。

IV　England　in　1760

Manufactures　and　Trade

　　　　Among　the　manufactures　of　the　time　the　woollen　business　was　by　far　the　most　important。　'All　our　measures；'　wrote　Bishop　Berkeley　in　1737；　'should　tend　towards　the　immediate　encouragement　of　our　woollen　manufactures；　which　must　be　looked　upon　as　the　basis　of　our　wealth。'　In　1701　our　woollen　exports　were　worth　*2；000；000；　or　'above　a　fourth　part　of　the　whole　export　trade。'　In　1770　they　were　worth　*4；000；000；　or　between　a　third　and　a　fourth　of　the　whole。　The　territorial　distribution　of　the　manufacture　was　much　the　same　as　now。　This　industry　had　probably　existed　in　England　from　an　early　date。　It　is　mentioned　in　a　law　of　1224。　In　1331　John　Kennedy　brought　the　art　of　weaving　woollen　cloth　from　Flanders　into　England；　and　received　the　protection　of　the　king；　who　at　the　same　time　invited　over　fullers　and　dyers。　There　is　extant　a　petition　of　the　worsted　weavers　and　merchants　of　Norwich　to　Edward　III　in　1348。　The　coarse　cloths　of　Kendal　and　the　fine　cloths　of　Somerset；　Dorset；　Bristol；　and　Gloucester　are　mentioned　in　the　statutes　of　the　same　century。　In　1391　we　hear　of　Guildford　cloths；　and　in　1467　of　the　woollen　manufacture　in　Devonshire…at…Lifton；　Tavistock；　and　Rowburgh。　In　1402　the　manufacture　was　settled　to　a　great　extent　in　and　near　London；　but　it　gradually　shifted；　owing　to　the　high　price　of　labour　and　provisions；　to　Surrey；　Kent；　Essex；　Berkshire；　and　Oxfordshire；　and　afterwards　still　further；　into　the　counties　of　Dorset；　Wilts；　Somerset；　Gloucester；　and　Worcester；　and　even　as　far　as　Yorkshire。　　　　　There　were　three　chief　districts　in　which　the　woollen　trade　was　carried　on　about　1760。　One　of　these　owed　its　manufacture　to　the　wars　in　the　Netherlands。　In　consequence　of　Alva's　persecutions　（1567…8）　many　Flemings　settled　in　Norwich　（which　had　been　desolate　since　Ket's　rebellion　in　1549）；　Colchester。　Sandwich；　Canterbury；　Maidstone；　and　Southampton；　The　two　former　towns　seem　to　have　benefited　most　from　the　skill　of　these　settlers　so　far　as　the　woollen　manufacture　was　concerned。　It　was　at　this　time；　according　to　Macpherson；　that　Norwich　'learned　the　making　of　those　fine　and　slight　stuffs　which　have　ever　since　gone　by　its　name；'　such　as　crapes；　bombayines；　and　camblets；　while　the　baiye…makers　settled　at　Colchester　and　its　neighbourhood。　The　stuffs　thus　introduced　into　England　were　known　as　the　'new　drapery'；　and　included　baiye；　serges；　and　other　slight　woollen　goods　as　distinguished　from　the　'old　drapery；'　a　term　applied　to　broad　cloth；　kersies；　etc。　　　　　The　chief　seats　of　the　West　of　England　manufacture　were　Bradford　in　Wilts；　the　centre　of　the　manufacture　of　super…fine　cloth；　Devizes；　famous　for　its　serges；　Warminster　and　Frome；　with　their　fine　cloth；　Trowbridge；　Stroud；　the　centre　of　the　dyed…cloth　manufactures；　and　Taunton；　which　in　Defoe's　time　possessed　1100　looms。　The　district　reached　from　Cirencester　in　the　north　to　Sherborne　in　the　south；　and　from　Witney　in　the　east　to　Bristol　in　the　west；　being　about　fifty　miles　in　length　where　longest；　and　twenty　in　breadth　where　narrowest　…　'a　rich　enclosed　country；'　as　Defoe　says；　'full　of　rivers　and　towns；　and　infinitely　populous；　insomuch　that　some　of　the　market　towns　are　equal　to　cities　in　bigness；　and　superior　to　many　of　them　in　numbers　of　people。'　It　was　a　'prodigy　of　a　trade；'　and　the　'fine　Spanish　medley　cloths'　which　this　district　produced　were　worn　by　'all　the　persons　of　fashion　in　England。'　It　was　no　doubt　the　presence　of　streams　and　the　Cotswold　wool　which　formed　the　attractions　of　the　district。　A　branch　of　the　industry　extended　into　Devon；　where　the　merchants　of　Exeter　bought　in　a　rough　state　the　serges　made　in　the　country　round；　to　dye　and　finish　them　for　home　consumption　or　export。　　　　　The　third　chief　seat　of　the　manufacture　was　the　West　Riding　of　Yorkshire；　where　the　worsted　trade　centred　round　Halifax；　which；　according　to　Camden；　began　to　manufacture　about　1537；　and　where　Leeds　and　its　neighbourhood　manufactured　a　coarse　cloth　of　English　wool。　In　1574　the　manufacturers　of　the　West　Riding　made　56；000　pieces　of　broad　cloth　and　72；000　of　narrow。　It　will　be　seen　from　this　short　survey　that；　however　greatly　the　production　of　these　different　districts　may　have　changed　in　proportion　since　1760；　the　several　branches　of　the　trade　are　even　now　distributed　very　much　as　they　were　then；　the　West　Riding　being　the　headquarters　of　the　worsted　and　coarse　cloth　trade；　while　Norwich　still　keeps　the　crape　industry；　and　the　West　manufactures　fine　cloth。　　　　　The　increased　demand　for　English　wool　consequent　upon　th