lectures on the industrial revolution in england-第5部分
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； and the West manufactures fine cloth。 The increased demand for English wool consequent upon the extension of this industry led to large enclosures of land； especially in Northamptonshire； Rutlandshire； Leicestershire； and Warwickshire； which counties supplied most of the combing wools used for worsted stuffs and stockings； but parts of Huntingdon； Bedford； Bucks； Cambridgeshire； Romney Marsh； and Norfolk competed with them； and by 1739 most counties produced the fine combing wool。 Defoe mentions the sale of wool from Lincolnshire； 'where the longest staple is found； the sheep of those parts being of the largest breed〃。 and in Arthur Young's time Lincolnshire and Leicestershire wools were still used at Norwich。 The Cotswold and Isle of Wight sheep yielded clothing or short wools； 'but they were inferior to the best Spanish wools；' and could not 'enter into the composition without spoiling and degrading in some degree the fabric of the cloth。' Consequently in the West of England； occupied as it was with the production of the finest cloths； Spanish wool was largely used； though shortly before Young's time it was discovered that 'Norfolk sheep yielded a wool about their necks equal to the best from Spain。' Next in importance was the iron trade； which was largely carried on； though by this time a decaying industry； in the Weald of Sussex； where in 1740 there were ten furnaces； producing annually 1400 tons。 The trade had reached its chief extent in the seventeenth century； but in 1724 was still the principal manufacturing interest of the county。 The balustrades which surround St。 Paul's were cast at Lamberhurst； and their weight； including the seven gates； is above 200 tons。 They cost *11；000。 Gloucestershire； Shropshire； and Yorkshire had each six furnaces。 In the latter county； which boasted an annual produce of 1400 tons； the most famous works were at Rotherham。 There were also great ironworks at Newcastle。 In 1755 an ironmaster named Anthony Bacon had got a lease for ninety…nine years of a district eight miles in length； by five in breadth； at Merthyr…Tydvil； upon which he erected iron and coal works。 In 1709 the Coalbrookdale works in Shropshire were founded； and in 1760 Carron iron was first manufactured in Scotland。 Altogether； there were about 1737 fifty…nine furnaces in eighteen different counties； producing 17；350 tons annually。 It has been computed that we imported 20；000 tons。 In 1881 we exported 3；820；315 tons of iron and steel； valued at *27；590；908； and imported to the value of *3；705；332。 The cotton trade was still so insignificant as to be mentioned only once； and that incidentally by Adam Smith。 It was confined to Lancashire； where its headquarters were Manchester and Bolton。 In 1760 not more than 40；000 persons were engaged in it； and the annual value of the manufactures was estimated at *600；000。 The exports； however； were steadily growing； in 1701 they amounted to *23；253； in 1751 to *45；986； in 1764 to *200；354。 Burke about this time spoke of 'that infinite variety of admirable manufactures that grow and extend every year among the spirited； inventive； and enterprising traders of Manchester。' But even in 1764 our exports of cotton were still only one…twentieth of the value of the wool exports。 The hardware trade then as now was located chiefly in Sheffield and Birmingham； the latter town employing over 50；000 people in that industry。 The business； however； was not so much concentrated as now； and there were small workshops scattered about the kingdom。 'Polished steel；' for instance； was manufactured at Woodstock； locks in South Staffordshire； pins at Warrington； Bristol； and Gloucester； where they were 'the staple of the city。' The hosiery trade； too； was as yet only in process of concentration。 By 1800 the manufacture of silk hosiery had centred in Derby； that of woollen hosiery in Leicester； though Nottingham had not yet absorbed the cotton hosiery。 But at the beginning of the century there were still many looms round London； and in other parts of the South of England。 In 1750 London had 1000 frames； Surrey 350； Nottingham 1500； Leicester 1000； Derby 200； other places in the Midlands； 7300； other English and Scotch towns； 1850； Ireland； 800； Total； 14；000。 Most of the silk was woven in Spitalfields； but first spun in the North at Stockport； Knutsford； Congleton； and Derby。 In 1770 there was a silk…mill at Sheffield on the model of Derby； and a manufactory of waste silk at Kendal。 Coventry had already； in Defoe's time； attracted the ribbon business。 In 1721 the silk manufacture was said to be worth *700；000 a yew more than at the Revolution。 Linen was an ancient manufacture in England； and had been introduced into Dundee at the beginning of the seventeenth century。 In 1746 the British Linen Company was incorporated to supply Africa and the American plantations with linen made at home； and Adam Smith considered it a growing manufacture。 It was； of course； the chief manufacture of Ireland； where it had been further developed by French Protestants； who settled there at the end of the seventeenth century。 The mechanical arts were still in a very backward state。 In spite of the fact that the woollen trade was the staple industry of the country； the division of labour in it was in Adam Smith's time 'nearly the same as it was a century before； and the machinery employed not very different。' According to the same author there had been only three inventions of importance since Edward IV's reign： the exchange of the rock and spindle for the spinning…wheel； the use of machines for facilitating the proper arrangement of the warp and woof before being put into the loom； and the employment of fulling mills for thickening cloth instead of treading it in water。 In this enumeration； however； he forgot to mention the fly…shuttle； invented in 1738 by Kay； a native of Bury； in Lancashire； the first of the great inventions which revolutionised the woollen industry。 Its utility consisted in its enabling a weaver to do his work in half the time； and making it possible for one man instead of two to weave the widest cloth。 'The machines used in the cotton manufacture；' says Baines； 'were； up to the year 1760； nearly as simple as those of India； though the loom was more strongly and perfectly constructed； and cards for combing the cotton had been adapted from the woollen manufacture。 None but the strong cottons； such as fustians and dimities； were as yet made in England； and for these the demand must always have been limited。' In 17S8 John Wyatt invented spinning by rollers； but the discovery never proved profitable。 In 1760 the manufacturers of Lancashire began to use the fly…shuttle。 Calico printing was already largely developed。 The reason why division of labour was carried out to so small an extent； an invention so rare and so little regarded； is given by Adam Smith himself。 Division of labour； as he points out； is limited by the extent of the market； and； owing chiefly to bad means of communication； the market for English manufactures was still a very narrow one。 Yet England； however slow the development o* her manufactures； advanced nevertheless more rapidly in this respect than other nations。 One great secret of her progress lay in the facilities for water…carriage afforded by her rivers； for all communication by land was still in the most neglected condition。 A second cause was the absence of internal customs barriers； such as existed in France； and in Prussia until Stein's time。 The home trade of England was absolutely free。 Arthur Young gives abundant evidence of the execrable state of the roads。 It took a week or more for a coach to go from London to Edinburgh。 On 'that infernal' road between Preston and Wigan the ruts were four feet deep； and he saw three carts break down in a mile of road。 At Warrington the turnpike was 'most infamously bad；' and apparently 'made with a view to immediate destruction。' 'Very shabby；' 'execrable；' 'vile；' 'most execrably vile；' are Young's ordinary comments on the highways。 But the water routes for traffic largely made up for the deficiencies of the land routes。 Attempts to improve water communication began with deepening the river beds。 In 16S5 there was a project for rendering the Avon navigable from its junction with the Severn at Tewkesbury through Gloucestershire； Worcestershire； and Warwickshire； but it was abandoned owing to the civil war。 From 1660 to 1755 various Acts were passed for deepening the beds of rivers。 In 1720 there was an Act for making the Mersey and Irwell navigable between Liverpool and Manchester。 About the same time the navigation of the Aire and Calder was opened out。 In 1755 the first canal was made； eleven miles in length； near Liverpool。 Three years later the Duke of Bridgewater had another constructed om his coal mines at Worsley to Manchester； seven miles distant。 Between 1761 and 1766 a still longer one of twenty…nine miles was completed from Manchester through Chester to the Mersey above Liverpool。 From this time onwards the canal system spread with great rapidity。 When we turn to investigate the industrial organisation of the time； we &nd that the class of capitalist employers was as yet but in its infancy。 A large part of our goods were still produced on the domestic system。 Manufactures were little concentrated in towns； and only partially separated from agriculture。 The 'manufacturer； was； literally； the man who worked with his own hands in his own cottage。 Nearly the whole cloth trade of the West Riding； for instance； was organised on this system at the beginning of the century。 An important feature in the industrial organisation of the time was the existence of a number of small master…manufacturers； who were entirely independent； having capital and land of their own； for they combined the culture of small freehold pasture…farms with their handicraft。 Defoe has left an interesting picture of their life。 The land near Halifax； he says； was 'divided into small Enclosures from two Acres to six or seven each； seldom more； every three or four Pieces of Land had an House belonging to them；。。。 hardly an House standing out of a Speaking distance from another；。。。 we could see at every House a Tenter； and on almost every T
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