lectures on the industrial revolution in england-第6部分

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　of　a　Speaking　distance　from　another；。。。　we　could　see　at　every　House　a　Tenter；　and　on　almost　every　Tenter　a　piece　of　Cloth　or　Kersie　or　Shaloon。。。。　Every　clothier　keeps　one　horse；　at　least；　to　carry　his　Manufactures　to　the　Market；　and　every　one；　generally；　keeps　a　Cow　or　two　or　more　for　his　Family。　By　this　means　the　small　Pieces　of　enclosed　Land　about　each　house　are　occupied；　for　they　scarce　sow　Corn　enough　to　feed　their　Poultry。。。。　The　houses　are　full　of　lusty　Fellows；　some　at　the　Dye…vat；　some　at　the　looms；　others　dressing　the　Cloths；　the　women　and　children　carding　or　spinning；　being　all　employed　from　the　youngest　to　the　oldest。。。。　Not　a　Beggar　to　be　seen　nor　an　idle　person。'　　　　　This　system；　however；　was　no　longer　universal　in　Arthur　Young's　time。　That　writer　found　at　Sheffield　a　silk…mill　employing　152　hands；　including　women　and　children；　at　Darlington　'one　master…manufacturer　employed　above　fifty　looms'；　at　Boyton　there　were　150　hands　in　one　factory。　So；　too；　in　the　West　of　England　cloth…trade　the　germs　of　the　capitalist　system　were　visible。　The　rich　merchant　gave　out　work　to　labourers　in　the　surrounding　villages；　who　were　his　employes；　and　were　not　independent。　In　the　Nottingham　hosiery　trade　there　were；　in　1750；　fifty　manufacturers；　known　as　'putters　out；'　who　employed　1200　frames；　in　Leicestershire　1800　frames　were　so　employed。　In　the　hand…made　nail　business　of　Staffordshire　and　Worcestershire；　the　merchant　had　warehouses　in　different　parts　of　the　district；　and　give　out　nail…rod　iron　to　the　nail…master；　sufficient　for　a　week's　work　for　him　and　his　family。　In　Lancashire　we　can　trace；　step　by　step；　the　growth　of　the　capitalist　employer。　At　first　we　see；　as　in　Yorkshire；　the　weaver　furnishing　himself　with　warp　and　weft；　which　he　worked　up　in　his　own　house　and　brought　himself　to　market。　By　degrees　he　found　it　difficult　to　get　yarn　from　the　spinners；　so　the　merchants　at　Manchester　gave　him　out　linen　warp　and　raw　cotton；　and　the　weaver　became　dependent　on　them。　Finally；　the　merchant　would　get　together　thirty　or　forty　looms　in　a　town。　This　was　the　nearest　approach　to　the　capitalist　system　before　the　great　mechanical　inventions。　　　　　Coming　to　the　system　of　exchange；　we　find　it　based　on　several　different　principles；　which　existed　side　by　side；　but　which　were　all；　as　we　should　think；　very　simple　and　primitive。　Each　trade　had　its　centre　in　a　provincial　town。　Leeds；　for　instance；　had　its　market　twice　a　week；　first　on　the　bridge　over　the　Aire；　afterwards　in　the　High　Street；　where；　at　a　later　time；　two　halls　were　built。　Every　clothier　had　his　stall；　to　which　he　would　bring　his　cloth　（seldom　more　than　one　piece　at　a　time；　owing　to　the　frequency　of　the　markets）。　At　six　or　seven　o'clock　a　bell　rang；　and　the　market　began；　the　merchants　and　factors　came　in　and　made　their　bargains　with　the　clothiers；　and　in　little　more　than　an　hour　the　whole　business　was　over。　By　nine　the　benches　were　cleared　and　the　hall　empty。　There　was　a　similar　hall　at　Halifax　for　the　worsted　trade。　But　a　large　portion　of　the　inland　traffic　was　carried　on　at　fairs；　which　were　still　almost　as　important　as　in　the　Middle　Ages。　The　most　famous　of　all　was　the　great　fair　of　Sturbridge；　which　lasted　from　the　middle　of　August　to　the　middle　of　September。　Hither　came　representatives　of　all　the　great　trades。　The　merchants　of　Lancashire　brought　their　goods　on　a　thousand　pack…horses；　the　Eastern　counties　sent　their　worsteds；　and　Birmingham　its　hardware。　An　immense　quantity　of　wool　was　sold；　orders　being　taken　by　the　wholesale　dealers　of　London。　In　fact；　a　large　part　of　the　home　trade　found　its　way　to　this　market。　There　were　also　the　four　great　annual　fairs；　which　retained　the　ancient　title　of　'marts；'　at　Lynn；　Boston；　Gainsborough；　and　Beverley。　　　　　The　link　between　these　fairs　and　the　chief　industrial　centres　was　furnished　by　travelling　merchants。　Some　would　go　from　Leeds　with　droves　of　pack…horses　to　all　the　fairs　and　market…towns　throughout　England。　In　the　market…towns　they　sold　to　the　shops；　elsewhere　they　would　deal　directly　with　the　consumer；　like　the　Manchester　merchants；　who　sent　their　pack…horses　the　round　of　the　farmhouses；　buying　wool　or　other　commodities　in　exchange　for　their　finished　goods。　Sometimes　the　London　merchants　would　come　to　the　manufacturers；　paying　their　guineas　down　at　once；　and　taking　away　the　purchases　themselves。　So　too　in　the　Birmingham　lock　trade；　chapmen　would　go　round　with　pack…horses　to　buy　from　manufacturers；　in　the　brass　trade　likewise　the　manufacturer　stayed　at　home；　and　the　merchant　came　round　with　cash　in　his　saddle…bags；　and　put　the　brasswork　which　he　purchased　into　them；　though　in　some　cases　he　would　order　it　to　be　sent　by　carrier。　　　　　Ready　cash　was　essential；　for　banking　was　very　little　developed。　The　Bank　of　England　existed；　but　before　1759　issued　no　notes　of　less　value　than　*20。　By　a　law　of　1709　no　other　bank　of　more　than　six　partners　was　allowed；　and　in　1750；　according　to　Burke；　there　were　not　more　than　'twelve　bankers'　shops　out　of　London。'　The　Clearing…House　was　not　established　till　1775。　　　　　Hampered　as　the　inland　trade　was　by　imperfect　communications；　extraordinary　efforts　were　made　to　promote　exchange。　It　is　striking　to　find　waste　silk　from　London　made　into　silk…yarn　at　Kendal　and　sent　back　again；　or　cattle　brought　from　Scotland　to　Norfolk　to　be　fed。　Many　districts；　however；　still　remained　completely　excluded；　so　that　foreign　products　never　reached　them　at　all。　Even　at　the　beginning　of　this　century　the　Yorkshire　yeoman；　as　described　by　Southey　was　ignorant　of　sugar；　potatoes；　and　cotton；　the　Cumberland　dalesman；　as　he　appears　in　Wordsworth's　Guide　to　the　Lakes；　lived　entirely　on　the　produce　of　his　farm。　It　was　this　domestic　system　which　the　great　socialist　writers　Sismondi　and　Lassalle　had　in　their　minds　when　they　inveighed　against　the　modern　organisation　of　industry。　Those　who　lived　under　it；　they　pointed　out；　though　poor；　were　on　the　whole　prosperous；　over…production　was　absolutely　impossible。　Yet　at　the　time　of　which　I　am　speaking；　many　of　the　evils　which　modern　Socialists　lament　were　already　visible；　especially　in　those　industries　which　produced　for　the　foreign　market。　Already　there　were　complaints　of　the　competition　of　men　who　pushed　themselves　into　the　market　to　take　advantage　of　high　prices；　already　we　hear　of　fluctuations　of　trade　and　irregularity　of　employment。　The　old　simple　conditions　of　production　and　exchange　were　on　the　eve　of　disappearance　before　the　all…corroding　force　of　foreign　trade。　　　　　The　home　trade　was　still　indeed　much　greater　in　proportion　than　now；　but　the　exports　had　grown　from　about　*7；000；000　at　the　beginning　of　the　century　to　*14；500；000　in　1760。　During　that　interval　great　changes　had　taken　place　in　the　channels　of　foreign　commerce。　In　1700　Holland　was　our　great　market；　taking　more　than　one…third　of　all　our　exports；　but　in　1760　the　proportion　was　reduced　to　about　one…seventh。　Portugal；　which　in　1703　took　one…seventh；　now　took　only　about　one…twelfth。　The　trade　with　France　was　quite　insignificant。　On　the　other　hand；　the　Colonies　were　now　our　chief　markets；　and　a　third　of　our　exports　went　there。　In　1770　America　took　three…fourths　of　all　the　manufactures　of　Manchester。　In　1767　the　exports　to　Jamaica　were　nearly　as　great　as　they　had　been　to　all　the　English　plantations　together　in　1704。　The　shipping　trade　had　doubled；　and　the　ships　themselves　were　larger。　In　1732　ships　750　tons　were　considered　remarkable；　in　1770　there　were　many　in　Liverpool　of　900　tons；　but　in　this　as　in　other　branches　of　business　progress　was　still　slow；　partial；　local；　thus　presenting　a　striking　contrast　to　the　rapid　and　general　advance　of　the　next　half…century。

V。　England　in　1760

The　Decay　of　the　Yeomanry

　　　　It　is　a　reflection　that　must　have　occurred　to　every　one　that　the　popular　philosophy　of　the　day；　while　in　the　region　of　speculation　it　has　undermined　ancient　beliefs；　has　exerted　in　the　practical　world　a　distinctly　conservative　influence。　The　conception　of　slow　development；　according　to　definite　laws；　undoubtedly　tends　to　strengthen　the　position　of　those　who　offer　resistance　to　radical　changes。　It　may；　however；　well　be　doubted　whether　the　theory　of　evolution　is　really　such　a　support　as　it　seems　to　be　to　those　who　would　uphold　the　existing　framework　of　society。　It　is　certainly　remarkable　that　the　most　recent　legislation　has　been　at　once　revolutionary　in　its　character　and　justified　by　appeals　to　historical　experience。　I　do　not　forget　that　the　most　distinguished　exponent　of　the　doctrine　of　evolution　as　applied　to　politics　has　developed　a　theory　of　government　opposed　to　recent　legislative　reforms；　but　that　theory　is　an　a　priori　one。　Those；　on　the　other　hand；　who　have　applied　the　historical　method　to　political　economy　and　the　science　of　society；　have　shown　an　unmistakable　disposition　to　lay　bare　the　injustice　to　which　the　humbler　classes　of　the　community　have　been　exposed；　and　to　defend　methods　and　institutions　adopted　for　their　protection　which　have　never　received　scientific　defence　before。　　　　　The　fact　is；　that　the　more　we　examine　the　actual　course　of　affairs；　the　more　we　are　amazed　at　the　unnecessary　suffering　that　has　been　inflicted　upon　the　people。　No　generalities　about　natural　law　or　inevitable　development　can　blind　us　to　the　fact；　that　the　progress　in　which　we　believe　has　been　won　at　the　expense　of　much　injustice　and　wrong；　which　was　not　inevitable。　Perhaps　this　is　most　conspicuous　in　our　land　system；　and　we　shall　find　with　regard　to　it；　as　with　regard　to　some　other　matters；　that　the　more　we　accept　the　method　of　historical　inquiry；　the　more　revolutionary　shall　we　tend　to　become　in　practice；　For　while　the　modern　historical　school　of　economists　appear　to　be　only　exploring　the　monuments　of　the　past；　they　are　really　shaking　the　foundations　of　many　of　our　institutions　in　the　present。　The　historical　method　is　often　deemed　conservative；　because　it　traces　the　gradual　and　stately　growth　of　our　venerable　institutions；　but　it　may　exercise　a　precisely　opposite　influence　by　showing　the　gross　injustice　which　was　blindly　perpetrated　during　this　growth。　The　historical　method　is　supposed　to　prove　that　economic　changes　have　been　the　inevitable　outcome　of　natural　laws。　It　just　as　often　proves　them　to　have　been　brought　about　by　the　self…seeking　action　of　do