lectures on the industrial revolution in england-第8部分

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f　John　Shorter；　merchant　of　London。　'I　think　I　remember；'　said　Sir　R。　Temple　between　1675　and　1700；　'the　first　noble　families　that　married　into　the　City　for　money。'　'Trade；'　said　Defoe；　'is　so　far　here　from　being　inconsistent　with　a　gentleman；　that；　in　short；　trade　in　England　makes　gentlemen；　for；　after　a　generation　or　two；　the　tradesmen's　children；　or　at　least　their　grandchildren；　come　to　be　as　good　gentlemen；　statesmen；　parliament…men；　privy…councillors；　judges；　bishops；　and　noblemen；　as　those　of　the　highest　birth；　and　the　most　ancient　families。'　Contrast　this　fusion　of　classes　with　the　French　society　of　the　last　century；　with　its　impoverished　nobility；　living　often　on　the　seignorial　rights　and　rent…charges　of　their　alienated　estates；　but　hardly　ever　intermarrying　with　the　commercial　classes；　or　that　of　Prussia；　where　the　two　classes　remained　entirely　separate；　and　could　not　even　purchase　one　another's　land。　　　　　I　have　established　two　facts：　the　special　reason　for　desiring　land　after　the　Revolution　as　a　condition　of　political　power　and　social　prestige；　and　the　means　of　buying　land　on　the　part　of　the　wealthy　merchants　or　of　the　nobility　and　greater　gentry　enriched　by　matrimonial　alliances　with　the　great　commercial　class。　Now　here　is　a　piece　of　evidence　to　show　that　it　was　the　accepted　policy　of　the　large　landowners　to　buy　out　the　yeoman。　The　land　agent；　whom　I　have　so　often　quoted；　lays　down　as　a　maxim　for　the　model　steward　that　he　'should　not　forget　to　make　the　best　inquiry　into　the　disposition　of　the　freeholders；　within　or　near　any　of　his　lord's　manors；　to　sell　their　lands；　that　he　may　use　his　best　endeavours　to　purchase　them　at　as　reasonable　a　price　as　may　be　for　his　lord's　advantage　and　convenience。'　　　　　On　the　other　hand；　as　a　result　of　the　supremacy　of　the　great　landowners　in　Parliament；　their　own　estates　were　artificially　protected。　The　system　of　strict　settlements；　introduced　by　Sir　Orlando　Bridgman　in　1666；　though　not　so　important　as　it　is　often　made　out　to　be；　prevented　much　land　from　coming　into　the　market；　though　it　did　not　prevent　merchants　from　buying　when　they　wished。　The　custom　of　primogeniture　checked　the　division　of　estates　by　leading　to　the　disuse　of　inheritance　by　gavelkind；　and　similar　customs。　In　Cumberland　primogeniture　was　introduced　among　the　freeholders　in　the　sixteenth　century。　In　Kent　there　was；　in　1740；　nearly　as　much　gavelkind　as　before　the　disgavelling　Acts　began；　but　thirty　years　later　it　was　being　superseded　by　primogeniture。　It　was　during　these　thirty　years　that　the　process　of　concentration　in　that　county　first　assumed　formidable　proportions。　In　Pickering；　on　the　other　hand；　where　the　law　of　equal　division　still　held　its　own；　small　landowners　al　so；　as　we　have　seen；　survived　after　their　extinction　in　most　parts　of　England。　　　　　A　third　result　of　landlord　supremacy　was　the　manner　in　which　the　common…field　system　was　broken　up。　Allusion　has　already　been　made　to　enclosures；　and　enclosures　meant　a　break…up　of　the　old　system　of　agriculture　and　a　redistribution　of　the　land。　This　is　a　problem　which　involves　delicate　questions　of　justice。　In　Prussia；　the　change　was　effected　by　impartial　legislation；　in　England；　the　work　was　done　by　the　strong　at　the　expense　of　the　weak。　The　change　from　common　to　individual　ownership；　which　was　economically　advantageous；　was　carried　out　in　an　iniquitous　manner；　and　thereby　became　socially　harmful。　Great　injury　was　thus　done　to　the　poor　and　ignorant　freeholders　who　lost　their　rights　in　the　common　lands。　In　Pickering；　in　one　instance；　the　lessee　of　the　tithes　applied　for　an　enclosure　of　the　waste。　The　small　freeholders　did　their　best　to　oppose　him；　but；　having　little　money　to　carry　on　the　suit；　they　were　overruled；　and　the　lessee；　who　had　bought　the　support　of　the　landless　'house…owners'　of　the　parish；　took　the　land　from　the　freeholders　and　shared　the　spoil　with　the　cottagers。　It　was　always　easy　for　the　steward　to　harass　the　small　owners　till　he　forced　them　to　sell；　like　Addison's　Touchy；　whose　income　had　been　reduced　by　lawsuits　from　*80　to　*30；　though　in　this　case　it　is　true　he　had　only　himself　to　blame。　The　enclosure　of　waste　land；　too；　did　great　damage　to　the　small　freeholders；　who；　without　the　right　of　grazing；　naturally　found　it　so　much　the　more　difficult　to　pay　their　way。　　　　　Though　the　economical　causes　of　the　disappearance　of　the　yeomen　were　comparatively　unimportant；　they　served　to　accelerate　the　change。　Small　arable　farms　would　not　pay；　and　must；　in　any　case；　have　been　thrown　together。　The　little　farmers；　according　to　Arthur　Young；　worked　harder　and　were　to　all　intents　and　purposes　as　low　in　the　comforts　of　life　as　the　day…labourers。　But　their　wretchedness　was　entirely　owing　to　their　occupying　arable　instead　of　grass　lands。　And　apart　from　this；　undoubtedly；　the　new　class　of　large　farmers　were　superior；　in　some　respects；　to　the　too　unprogressive　yeomen；　…　'quite　a　different　sort　of　men。。。　In　point　of　knowledge　and　ideas；'　with　whose　improved　methods　of　agriculture　the　yeomen　found　it　difficult　to　compete。　A　further　economic　cause　which　tended　to　depress　many　of　the　yeomen　was　the　gradual　destruction　of　domestic　industries；　which　injured　them　as　it　injures　the　German　peasant　at　the　present　day；　in　Cumberland　the　yeomen　began　to　disappear　when　the　spinning…wheel　was　silenced。　The　decay　of　the　home　manufacture　of　cloth　seems　to　have　considerably　affected　the　Grey…coats　of　Kent。　And　finally；　as　the　small　towns　and　villages　decayed；　owing　to　the　consolidation　of　farms　and　of　industry；　the　small　freeholders　lost　their　market；　for　the　badness　of　the　roads　made　it　difficult　for　them　to　send　their　produce　far。　Hence　the　small　freeholders　survived　longest　where　they　owned　dairy…farms；　as　in　Cumberland　and　the　West　Riding；　and　where　domestic　industry　flourished；　and　they　had　a　market　for　their　products　in　their　own　neighbourhood。　　　　　When　once　the　ranks　of　the　yeomanry　had　been　appreciably　thinned；　the　process　of　extinction　went　on　with　ever…growing　rapidity。　The　survivors　became　isolated。　They　would　have　no　one　of　their　own　station　to　whom　they　could　marry　their　daughters；　and　would　become　more　and　more　willing　to　sell　their　lands；　however　strong　the　passion　of　possession　might　be　in　some　places。　The　more　enterprising；　too；　would　move　off　to　the　towns　to　make　their　fortunes　there；　just　as　at　the　present　day　the　French　peasants　are　attracted　to　the　more　interesting　and　exciting　life　of　the　town。　Thus　Sir　Robert　Peel's　grandfather　was　originally　a　yeoman　farming　his　own　estate；　but　being　of　an　inventive　turn　of　mind　he　took　to　cotton　manufacturing　and　printing。　This　was　particularly　the　case　with　the　small　squires；　who　grew　comparatively　poorer　and　poorer；　and　found　it　increasingly　difficult　to　keep　pace　with　the　rise　in　the　standard　of　comfort。　Already；　at　the　end　of　the　seventeenth　century；　the　complaint　had　been　raised　that　the　landowners　were　beginning　to　live　in　the　county　towns。　Afterwards；　the　more　wealthy　came　up　to　London；　Sir　Roger　de　Coverley　had　a　house　in　Soho　Square。　The　small　country　gentleman　felt　the　contrast　between　him　and　his　richer　neighbours　more　and　more；　and　as　he　had　none　of　the　political　power　attaching　to　land…for　the　great　landowners　had　the　whole　administration　in　their　hands…there　was　every　inducement　for　him　to　sell　and　invest　his　money　in　a　more　profitable　manner。　　　　　To　summarise　the　movement：　it　is　probable　that　the　yeomen　would　in　any　case　have　partly　disappeared；　owing　to　the　inevitable　working　of　economic　causes。　But　these　alone　would　not　have　led　to　their　disappearance　on　so　large　a　scale。　It　was　the　political　conditions　of　the　age；　the　overwhelming　importance　of　land；　which　made　it　impossible　for　the　yeoman　to　keep　his　grip　upon　the　soil。

VI。　England　in　1760

The　Condition　of　the　Wage…Earners

　　　　The　condition　of　the　agricultural　labourer　had　very　much　improved　since　the　beginning　of　the　century。　In　the　seventeenth　century　his　average　daily　wage　had　been　10　1/4d。；　while　the　average　price　of　corn　had　been　38s。　2d。　During　the　first　sixty　years　of　the　eighteenth　century　his　average　wages　were　1s。；　the　price　of　corn　32s。　Thus；　while　the　price　of　corn　had；　thanks　to　a　succession　of　good　seasons；　fallen　16　per　cent；　wages　had　risen　to　about　an　equal　extent；　and　the　labourer　was　thus　doubly　benefited。　Adam　Smith　attributes　this　advance　in　prosperity　to　'an　increase　in　the　demand　for　labour；　arising　from　the　great　and　almost　universal　prosperity　of　the　country〃。　but　at　the　same　time　he　allows　that　wealth　had　only　advanced　gradually；　and　with　no　great　rapidity。　The　real　solution　is　to　be　found　in　the　slow　rate　of　increase　in　the　numbers　of　the　people。　Wealth　had　indeed　grown　slowly；　but　its　growth　had　nevertheless　been　more　rapid　than　that　of　population。　　　　　The　improvement　in　the　condition　of　the　labourer　was　thus　due　to　an　increase　in　real　and　not　only　in　nominal　wages。　It　is　true　that　certain　articles；　such　as　soap；　salt；　candles；　leather；　fermented　liquors；　had；　chiefly　owing　to　the　taxes　laid　on　them；　become　a　good　deal　dearer；　and　were　consumed　in　very　small　quantities；　but　the　enhanced　prices　of　these　things　were　more　than　counterbalanced　by　the　greater　cheapness　of　grain；　potatoes；　turnips；　carrots；　cabbages；　apples；　onions；　linen　and　woollen　cloth；　instruments　made　of　the　coarser　metals；　and　household　furniture。　Wheaten　bread　had　largely　superseded　rye　and　barley　bread；　which　were　'looked　upon　with　a　sort　of　horror。'　wheat　being　as　cheap　as　rye　and　barley　had　been　in　former　times。　Every　poor　family　drank　tea　once　a　day　at　least　…　a　'pernicious　commodity；'　a　'vile　superfluity；'　in　Arthur　Young's　eyes。　Their　consumption　of　meat　was　'pretty　considerable'；　that　of　cheese　was　'immense。'　In　1737　the　day…labourers　of　England；　'by　their　large　wages　and　cheapness　of　all　necessaries；'　enjoyed　better　dwellings；　diet；　and　apparel　in　England；　than　the　husbandmen　or　farmers　did　in　other　countries。'　The　middle　of　the　eighteenth　century　was　indeed　about　his　best　time；　though　a　decline　soon　set　in。　By　1771　his　condition　had　already　been　somewhat　affected　by　the　dear　years　immediately　preceding；　when　prices　had　risen　much　faster　than　wages；　although　the　change　had　as　yet；　according　to　Young；　merely　cut　off　his　superfluous　expenditure。　By　the　end　of　the　century