the origins of contemporary france-1-第48部分

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I。SCIENTIFIC　PROGRESS。



The　accumulation　and　progress　of　discoveries　in　science　and　in

nature。　　…　They　serve　as　a　starting…point　for　the　new　philosophers。



The　first　is　scientific　discovery；　admirable　on　all　sides；　and

beneficent　in　its　nature；　it　is　made　up　of　masses　of　facts　slowly

accumulated　and　then　summarily　presented；　or　in　rapid　succession。　　For

the　first　time　in　history　the　sciences　expand　and　affirm　each　other　to

the　extent　of　providing；　not；　as　formerly；　under　Galileo　and

Descartes；　constructive　fragments；　or　provisional　scaffolding；　but　a

definite　and　demonstrated　system　of　the　universe；　that　of　Newton。＇1＇

Around　this　capital　fact；　almost　all　the　discoveries　of　the　century；

either　as　complementary　or　as　prolongations；　range　themselves。　　In　pure

mathematics　we　have　the　Infinitesimal　Calculus　discovered

simultaneously　by　Leibnitz　and　Newton；　mechanics　reduced　by　d'Alembert

to　a　single　theorem；　and　that　superb　collection　of　theories　which；

elaborated　by　the　Bernouillis；　Euler；　Clairaut；　d'Alembert；　Taylor　and

Maclaurin；　is　finally　completed　at　the　end　of　the　century　by　Monge；

Lagrange；　and　Laplace。＇2＇　In　astronomy；　the　series　of　calculations　and

observations　which；　from　Newton　to　Laplace；　transforms　science　into　a

problem　of　mechanics；　explains　and　predicts　the　movements　of　the

planets　and　of　their　satellites；　indicating　the　origin　and　formation

of　our　solar　system；　and；　extending　beyond　this；　through　the

discoveries　of　Herschel；　affording　an　insight　into　the　distribution　of

the　stellar　archipelagos；　and　of　the　grand　outlines　of　celestial

architecture。　　In　physics；　the　decomposition　of　light　and　the

principles　of　optics　discovered　by　Newton；　the　velocity　of　sound；　the

form　of　its　undulations；　and　from　Sauveur　to　Chladni；　from　Newton　to

Bernouilli　and　Lagrange；　the　experimental　laws　and　leading　theorems　of

Acoustics；　the　primary　laws　of　the　radiation　of　heat　by　Newton；　Kraft

and　Lambert；　the　theory　of　latent　heat　by　Black；　the　proportions　of

caloric　by　Lavoisier　and　Laplace；　the　first　true　conceptions　of　the

source　of　fire　and　heat；　the　experiments；　laws；　and　means　by　which

Dufay；　Nollet；　Franklin；　and　especially　Coulomb　explain；　manipulate

and；　for　the　first　time；　utilize　electricity。　　…　　In　Chemistry；　all

the　foundations　of　the　science：　isolated　oxygen；　nitrogen　and

hydrogen；　the　composition　of　water；　the　theory　of　combustion；　chemical

nomenclature；　quantitative　analysis；　the　indestructibility　of　matter；

in　short；　the　discoveries　of　Scheele；　Priestley；　Cavendish　and　Stahl；

crowned　with　the　clear　and　concise　theory　of　Lavoisier。　　…　　　In

Mineralogy；　the　goniometer；　the　constancy　of　angles　and　the　primary

laws　of　derivation　by　Romé　de　Lisle；　and　next　the　discovery　of　types

and　the　mathematical　deduction　of　secondary　forms　by　Haüy。　　…　　In

Geology；　the　verification　and　results　of　Newton's　theory；　the　exact

form　of　the　earth；　the　depression　of　the　poles；　the　expansion　of　the

equator；＇3＇　the　cause　and　the　law　of　the　tides；　the　primitive　fluidity

of　the　planet；　the　constancy　of　its　internal　heat；　and　then；　with

Buffon；　Desmarets；　Hutton　and　Werner；　the　aqueous　or　igneous　origin　of

rocks；　the　stratifications　of　the　earth；　the　structure　of　beds　of

fossils；　the　prolonged　and　repeated　submersion　of　continents；　the　slow

growth　of　animal　and　vegetable　deposits；　the　vast　antiquity　of　life；

the　stripping；　fracturing　and　gradual　transformation　of　the

terrestrial　surface；＇4＇　and；　finally　the　grand　picture　in　which　Buffon

describes　in　approximate　manner　the　entire　history　of　our　globe；　from

the　moment　it　formed　a　mass　of　glowing　lava　down　to　the　time　when　our

species；　after　so　many　lost　or　surviving　species；　was　able　to　inhabit

it。　　…　　Upon　this　science　of　inorganic　matter　we　see　arising　at　the

same　time　the　science　of　organic　matter。　　Grew；　and　then　Vaillant　had

just　demonstrated　the　sexual　system　and　described　the　fecundating　of

plants；　Linnaeus　invents　botanical　nomenclature　and　the　first　complete

classifications；　the　Jussieus　discover　the　subordination　of

characteristics　and　natural　classification。　　Digestion　is　explained　by

Réaumur　and　Spallanzani；　respiration　by　Lavoisier　；　Prochaska　verifies

the　mechanism　of　reflex　actions　；　Haller　and　Spallanzani　experiment　on

and　describe　the　conditions　and　phases　of　generation。　　Scientists

penetrate　to　the　lowest　stages　of　animal　life。　　Réaumur　publishes　his

admirable　observations　on　insects　and　Lyonnet　devotes　twenty　years　to

portraying　the　willow…caterpillar；　Spallanzani　resuscitates　his

rotifers；　Tremblay　dissects　his　fresh…water　polyps；　and　Needham

reveals　his　infusoria。　　The　experimental　conception　of　life　is　deduced

from　these　various　researches。　　Buffon　already；　and　especially　Lamarck；

in　their　great　and　incomplete　sketches；　outline　with　penetrating

divination　the　leading　features　of　modern　physiology　and　zoology。

Organic　molecules　everywhere　diffused　or　everywhere　growing；　species

of　globules　constantly　in　course　of　decay　and　restoration；　which；

through　the　blind　and　spontaneous　development；　transform　themselves；

multiply　and　combine；　and　which；　without　either　foreign　direction　or

any　preconceived　end；　solely　through　the　effect　of　their　structure　and

surroundings；　unite　together　to　form　those　masterly　organisms　which　we

call　plants　and　animals　：　in　the　beginning；　the　simplest　forms；　and

next　a　slow；　gradual；　complex　and　perfected　organization　；　the　organ

created　through　habits；　necessity　and　surrounding　medium；　heredity

transmitting　acquired　modifications；＇5＇　all　denoting　in　advance；　in　a

state　of　conjecture　and　approximation；　the　cellular　theory　of　later

physiologists＇6＇　and　the　conclusions　of　Darwin。＇7＇　In　the　picture

which　the　human　mind　draws　of　nature；　the　general　outline　is　marked　by

the　science　of　the　eighteenth　century；　the　arrangement　of　its　plan　and

of　the　principal　masses　being　so　correctly　marked；　that　to　day　the

leading　lines　remain　intact。　　With　the　exception　of　a　few　partial

corrections　we　have　nothing　to　efface。



This　vast　supply　of　positive　or　probable　facts；　either　demonstrated

or　anticipated；　furnishes　food；　substance　and　impulse　to　the　intellect

of　the　eighteenth　century。　　Consider　the　leaders　of　public　opinion；　the

promoters　of　the　new　philosophy：　they　are　all；　in　various　degrees；

versed　in　the　physical　and　natural　sciences。　　Not　only　are　they

familiar　with　theories　and　authorities；　but　again　they　have　a　personal

knowledge　of　facts　and　things。　　Voltaire＇8＇　is　among　the　first　to

explain　the　optical　and　astronomical　theories　of　Newton；　and　again　to

make　calculations；　observations　and　experiments　of　his　own。　　He　writes

memoirs　for　the　Academy　of　Sciences　〃On　the　Measure　of　Motive　Forces；〃

and　〃On　the　Nature　and　Diffusion　of　Heat。〃　He　handles　Réamur's

thermometer；　Newton's　prism；　and　Muschenbrock's　pyrometer。　　In　his

laboratory　at　Cirey　he　has　all　the　known　apparatus　for　physics　and

chemistry。　　He　experiments　with　his　own　hand　on　the　reflection　of　light

in　space；　on　the　increase　of　weight　in　calcified　metals；　on　the

renewal　of　amputated　parts　of　animals；　and　in　the　spirit　of　a　true

savant；　persistently；　with　constant　repetitions；　even　to　the　beheading

of　forty　snails　and　slugs；　to　verify　an　assertion　made　by　Spallanzani。

…　　The　same　curiosity　and　the　same　preparation　prevails　with　all

imbued　with　the　same　spirit。　　In　the　other　camp；　among　the　Cartesians；

about　to　disappear；　Fontenelle　is　an　excellent　mathematician；　the

competent　biographer　of　all　eminent　men　of　science；　the　official

secretary　and　true　representative　of　the　Academy　of　Sciences。　　In　other

places；　in　the　Academy　of　Bordeaux；　Montesquieu　reads　discourses　on

the　mechanism　of　the　echo；　and　on　the　use　of　the　renal　glands；　he

dissects　frogs；　tests　the　effect　of　heat　and　cold　on　animated　tissues；

and　publishes　observations　on　plants　and　insects。　　…　　Rousseau；　the

least　instructed　of　all；　attends　the　lectures　of　the　chemist　Rouelle；

botanizing　and　appropriating　to　himself　all　the　elements　of　human

knowledge　with　which　to　write　his　〃Emile。〃　　…　　Diderot　taught

mathematics　and　devoured　every　science　and　art　even　to　the　technical

processes　of　all　industries。　　D'Alembert　stands　in　the　first　rank　of

mathematicians。　　Buffon　translated　Newton's　theory　of　flux；　and　the

Vegetable　Statics　of　Hales；　he　is　in　turn　a　metallurgist；　optician；

geographer；　geologist　and；　last　of　all；　an　anatomist。　　Condillac；　to

explain　the　use　of　signs　and　the　relation　of　ideas；　writes　abridgments

of　arithmetic；　algebra；　mechanics　and　astronomy。＇9＇　Maupertuis；

Condorcet　and　Lalande　are　mathematicians；　physicists　and　astronomers；

d'Holbach；　Lamettrie　and　Cabanis　are　chemists；　naturalists

physiologists　and　physicians。　　…　　Prophets　of　a　superior　or　inferior

kind；　masters　or　pupils；　specialists　or　simple　amateurs；　all　draw

directly　or　indirectly　from　the　living　source　that　has　just　burst

forth。　　This　is　their　basis　when　they　begin　to　teach　about　Man；　what　he

is；　from　whence　he　came；　where　he　is　going；　what　he　may　become　and

what　he　should　be。　　A　new　point　of　departure　leads　to　new　points　of

view；　so　that　the　idea；　which　was　then　entertained　of　the　human　being

will　become　completely　transformed。



II。　　　SCIENCE　DETACHED　FROM　THEOLOGY。



Change　of　the　point　of　view　in　the　science　of　man。　　…　It　is　detached

from　theology　and　is　united　with　the　natural　sciences。



Let　us　suppose　a　mind　thoroughly　imbued　with　these　new　truths；　to

be　placed　on　the　orbit　of　Saturn；　and　let　him　observe＇10＇。　　Amidst　this

vast　and　overwhelming　space　and　in　these　boundless　solar

archipelagoes；　how　small　is　our　own　sphere；　and　the　earth；　what　a

grain　of　sand！　What　multitudes　of　worlds　beyond　our　own；　and；　if　life

exists　in　them；　what　combinations　are　possible　other　than　those　of

which　we　are　the　result！　What　is　life；　what　is　organic　substance　in

the　monstrous　universe　but　an　indifferent　mass；　a　passing　accident；

the　corruption　of　a　few