the origins of contemporary france-1-第50部分

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their　discoveries；　popularized；　slowly　deposit　in　the　human　brain。



A　second　principle　has　to　be　established　to　complete　the

foundations　of　history。　　Discovered　by　Montesquieu　it　still　to…day

serves　as　a　constructive　support；　and；　if　we　resume　the　work；　as　if　on

the　substructure　of　the　master's　edifice；　it　is　simply　owing　to

accumulated　erudition　placing　at　our　disposal　more　substantial　and

more　abundant　materials。　　In　human　society　all　parts　are

interdependent；　no　modification　of　one　can　take　place　without

effecting　proportionate　changes　in　the　others。　　Institutions；　laws　and

customs　are　not　mingled　together；　as　in　a　heap；　through　chance　or

caprice；　but　connected　one　with　the　other　through　convenience　or

necessity；　as　in　a　harmony。＇22＇　According　as　authority　is　in　all；　in

several　or　in　one　hand；　according　as　the　sovereign　admits　or　rejects

laws　superior　to　himself；　with　intermediary　powers　below　him；

everything　changes　or　tends　to　differ　in　meaning　and　in　importance：



*　public　intelligence；



*　education；



*　the　form　of　judgments；



*　the　nature　and　order　of　penalties；



*　the　condition　of　women；



*　military　organization



*　and　the　nature　and　the　extent　of　taxation。



A　multitude　of　subordinate　wheels　depend　on　the　great　central

wheel。　　For　if　the　clock　runs；　it　is　owing　to　the　harmony　of　its

various　parts；　from　which　it　follows　that；　on　this　harmony　ceasing；

the　clock　gets　out　of　order。　　But；　besides　the　principal　spring；　there

are　others　which；　acting　on　or　in　combination　with　it；　give　to　each

clock　a　special　character　and　a　peculiar　movement。　　Such；　in　the　first

place；　is　climate；　that　is　to　say；　the　degree　of　heat　or　cold；

humidity　or　dryness；　with　its　infinite　effects　on　man's　physical　and

moral　attributes；　followed　by　its　influence　on　political；　civil　and

domestic　servitude　or　freedom。　　Likewise　the　soil；　according　to　its

fertility；　its　position　and　its　extent。　　Likewise　the　physical　régime；

according　as　a　people　is　composed　of　hunters；　shepherds　or

agriculturists。　　Likewise　the　fecundity　of　the　race；　and　the　consequent

slow　or　rapid　increase　of　population；　and　also　the　excess　in　number；

now　of　males　and　now　of　females。　　And　finally；　likewise；　are　national

character　and　religion。　　…　　All　these　causes；　each　added　to　the　other；

or　each　limited　by　the　other；　contribute　together　to　form　a　total

result；　namely　society。　　Simple　or　complex；　stable　or　unstable；

barbarous　or　civilized；　this　society　contains　within　itself　its

explanations　of　its　being。　　Strange　as　a　social　structure　may　be；　it

can　be　explained；　also　its　institutions；　however　contradictory。

Neither　prosperity；　nor　decline；　nor　despotism；　nor　freedom；　is　the

result　of　a　throw　of　the　dice；　of　luck　or　an　unexpected　turn　of　events

caused　by　rash　men。　　They　are　conditions　we　must　live　with。　　In　any

event；　it　is　useful　to　understand　them；　either　to　improve　our

situation　or　bear　it　patiently；　sometimes　to　carry　out　appropriate

reforms；　sometimes　to　renounce　impracticable　reforms；　now　to　assume

the　authority　necessary　for　success；　and　now　the　prudence　making　us

abstain。



IV。　　THE　NEW　PSYCHOLOGY。



The　transformation　of　psychology。　　…　Condillac。　　…　The　theory　of

sensation　and　of　signs。



　　We　now　reach　the　core　of　moral　science；　the　human　being　in

general。　　The　natural　history　of　the　mind　must　be　dealt　with；　and　this

must　be　done　as　we　have　done　the　others；　by　discarding　all　prejudice

and　adhering　to　facts；　taking　analogy　for　our　guide；　beginning　with

origins　and　following；　step　by　step；　the　development　by　which　the

infant；　the　savage；　the　uncultivated　primitive　man；　is　converted　into

the　rational　and　cultivated　man。　　Let　us　consider　life　at　the　outset；

the　animal　at　the　lowest　degree　on　the　scale；　the　human　being　as　soon

as　it　is　born。　　The　first　thing　we　find　is　perception；　agreeable　or

disagreeable；　and　next　a　want；　propensity　or　desire；　and　therefore　at

last；　by　means　of　a　physiological　mechanism；　voluntary　or　involuntary

movements；　more　or　less　accurate　and　more　or　less　appropriate　and

coordinated。　　And　this　elementary　fact　is　not　merely　primitive；　it　is；

again；　constant　and　universal；　since　we　encounter　it　at　each　moment　of

each　life；　and　in　the　most　complicated　as　well　as　in　the　simplest。　　Let

us　accordingly　ascertain　whether　it　is　not　the　thread　with　which　all

our　mental　cloth　is　woven；　and　whether　its　spontaneous　unfolding；　and

the　knotting　of　mesh　after　mesh；　is　not　finally　to　produce　the　entire

network　of　our　thought　and　passion。　　…　　Condillac　（1715…1780）provides

us　here　with　an　incomparable　clarity　and　precision　with　the　answers　to

all　our　questions；　which；　however　the　revival　of　theological　prejudice

and　German　metaphysics　was　to　bring　into　discredit　in　the　beginning　of

the　nineteenth　century；　but　which　fresh　observation；　the　establishment

of　mental　pathology；　and　dissection　have　now　（in　1875）　brought　back；

justified　and　completed。＇23＇　Locke　had　already　stated　that　our　ideas

all　originate　in　outward　or　inward　experience。　　Condillac　shows　further

that　the　actual　elements　of　perception；　memory；　idea；　imagination；

judgment；　reasoning；　knowledge　are　sensations；　properly　so　called；　or

revived　sensations；　our　loftiest　ideas　are　derived　from　no　other

material；　for　they　can　be　reduced　to　signs　which　are　themselves

sensations　of　a　certain　kind。　　Sensations　accordingly　form　the

substance　of　human　or　of　animal　intelligence；　but　the　former

infinitely　surpasses　the　latter　in　this；　that；　through　the　creation　of

signs；　it　succeeds　in　isolating；　abstracting　and　noting　fragments　of

sensations；　that　is　to　say；　in　forming；　combining　and　employing

general　conceptions。　　…　　This　being　granted；　we　are　able　to　verify　all

our　ideas；　for；　through　reflection；　we　can　revive　and　reconstruct　the

ideas　we　had　formed　without　any　reflection。　　No　abstract　definitions

exist　at　the　outset；　abstraction　is　ulterior　and　derivative；　foremost

in　each　science　must　be　placed　examples；　experiences；　evident　facts；

from　these　we　derive　our　general　idea。　　In　the　same　way　we　derive　from

several　general　ideas　of　the　same　degree　another　general　idea；　and　so

on　successively；　step　by　step；　always　proceeding　according　to　the

natural　order　of　things；　by　constant　analysis；　using　expressive　signs；

as　with　mathematicians　in　passing　from　calculation　by　the　fingers　to

calculation　by　numerals；　and　from　this　to　calculation　by　letters；　and

who；　calling　upon　the　eyes　to　aid　Reason；　depict　the　inward　analogy　of

quantities　by　the　outward　analogy　of　symbols。　　In　this　way　science

becomes　complete　by　means　of　a　properly　organized　language。＇24＇　　…

Through　this　reversal　of　the　usual　method　we　summarily　dispose　of

disputes　about　words；　escape　the　illusions　of　human　speech；　simplify

study；　remodel　education；　enhance　discoveries；　subject　every　assertion

to　control；　and　bring　all　truths　within　reach　of　all　understandings。



V。　　THE　ANALYTICAL　METHOD。



The　analytical　method。　　…　Its　principle。　　…　The　conditions　requisite

to　make　it　productive。　　…　These　conditions　wanting　or　inadequate　in　the

18th　century。　　…　The　truth　and　survival　of　the　principle。



Such　is　the　course　to　be　pursued　with　all　the　sciences；　and

especially　with　the　moral　and　political　sciences。　　To　consider　in　turn

each　distinct　province　of　human　activity；　to　decompose　the　leading

notions　out　of　which　we　form　our　conceptions；　those　of　religion；

society　and　government；　those　of　utility；　wealth　and　exchange；　those

of　justice；　right　and　duty。　　To　revert　to　manifest　facts；　to　first

experiences；　to　the　simple　circumstances　in　which　the　elements　of　our

ideas　are　included；　to　extricate　from　these　the　precious　lode　without

omission　or　mixture；　to　recompose　our　idea　with　these；　to　define　its

meaning　and　determine　its　value；　to　substitute　for　the　vague　and

vulgar　notion　with　which　we　started　out　the　precise　scientific

definition　we　arrive　at；　and　for　the　impure　metal　we　received　the

refined　metal　we　recovered；　constituted　the　prevalent　method　taught　by

the　philosophers　under　the　name　of　analysis；　and　which　sums　up　the

whole　progress　of　the　century。　　…　Up　to　this　point；　and　not　farther；

they　are　right；　truth；　every　truth；　is　found　in　observable　things；　and

only　from　these　can　it　be　derived；　there　is　no　other　pathway　leading

to　discovery。…The　operation；　undoubtedly；　is　productive　only　when　the

vein　is　rich；　and　we　possess　the　means　of　extracting　the　ore。　　To

obtain　a　just　notion　of　government；　of　religion；　of　right；　of　wealth；

a　man　must　be　a　historian　beforehand；　a　jurisconsult　and　economist；

and　have　gathered　up　myriad　of　facts；　and；　besides　all　this；　he　must

possess　a　vast　erudition；　an　experienced　and　professional

perspicacity。　　If　these　conditions　are　only　partially　complied　with；

the　result　will　only　be　a　half　finished　product　or　a　doubtful　alloy；　a

few　rough　drafts　of　the　sciences；　the　rudiments　of　pedagogy　as　with

Rousseau；　of　political　economy　with　Quesnay；　Smith；　and　Turgot；　of

linguistics　with　Des　Brosses；　and　of　arithmetical　morals　and　criminal

legislation　with　Bentham。　　Finally；　if　none　of　these　conditions　are

complied　with；　the　same　efforts　will；　in　the　hands　of　philosophical

amateurs　and　oratorical　charlatans；　undoubtedly　only　produce

mischievous　compounds　and　destructive　explosions。　　…　　Nevertheless

good　procedure　remains　good　even　when　ignorant　and　the　impetuous　men

make　a　bad　use　of　it；　and　if　we　of　to　day　resume　the　abortive　effort

of　the　eighteenth　century；　it　should　be　within　the　guidelines　they　set

out。



_____________________________________________________________________



Notes：



＇1＇。　　〃Philosophi？　naturalis　principia；〃　1687；　〃Optics；〃　1704。



＇2＇　See　concerning　this　development　Comte's　〃Philosophie　Positive；〃

vol。　　I。　　…　　At　the　beginning　of　the　eighteenth　century；　mathematical

instruments　are　carried　to　such　perfection　as　to　warrant　the　belief

that　all　physical　phenomena　m