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much　to　the　cultivators　beyond　mere　necessaries；　and　often　strips

them　so　bare　even　of　these；　that　it　finds　itself　obliged；　after

taking　all　they　have；　to　lend　part　of　it　back　to　those　from　whom

it　has　been　taken；　in　order　to　provide　them　with　seed；　and　enable

them　to　support　life　until　another　harvest。　Under　the　r間ime　in

question；　though　the　bulk　of　the　population　are　ill　provided　for；

the　government；　by　collecting　small　contributions　from　great

numbers；　is　enabled；　with　any　tolerable　management；　to　make　a

show　of　riches　quite　out　of　proportion　to　the　general　condition

of　the　society；　and　hence　the　inveterate　impression；　of　which

Europeans　have　only　at　a　late　period　been　disabused；　concerning

the　great　opulence　of　Oriental　nations。　In　this　wealth；　without

reckoning　the　large　portion　which　adheres　to　the　hands　employed

in　collecting　it；　many　persons　of　course　participate；　besides　the

immediate　household　of　the　sovereign。　A　large　part　is　distributed

among　the　various　functionaries　of　government；　and　among　the

objects　of　the　sovereign's　favour　or　caprice。　A　part　is

occasionally　employed　in　works　of　public　utility。　The　tanks；

wells；　and　canals　for　irrigation；　without　which　in　many　tropical

climates　cultivation　could　hardly　be　carried　on；　the　embankments

which　confine　the　rivers；　the　bazars　for　dealers；　and　the　seraees

for　travellers；　none　of　which　could　have　been　made　by　the　scanty

means　in　the　possession　of　those　using　them；　owe　their　existence

to　the　liberality　and　enlightened　self…interest　of　the　better

order　of　princes；　or　to　the　benevolence　or　ostentation　of　here

and　there　a　rich　individual；　whose　fortune；　if　traced　to　its

source；　is　always　found　to　have　been　drawn　immediately　or

remotely　from　the　public　revenue；　most　frequently　by　a　direct

grant　of　a　portion　of　it　from　the　sovereign。

　　　　The　ruler　of　a　society　of　this　description；　after　providing

largely　for　his　own　support；　and　that　of　all　persons　in　whom　he

feels　an　interest；　and　after　maintaining　as　many　soldiers　as　he

thinks　needful　for　his　security　or　his　state；　has　a　disposable

residue；　which　he　is　glad　to　exchange　for　articles　of　luxury

suitable　to　his　disposition：　as　have　also　the　class　of　persons

who　have　been　enriched　by　his　favour；　or　by　handling　the　public

revenues。　A　demand　thus　arises　for　elaborate　and　costly

manufactured　articles；　adapted　to　a　narrow　but　a　wealthy　market。

This　demand　is　often　supplied　almost　exclusively　by　the　merchants

of　more　advanced　communities；　but　often　also　raises　up　in　the

country　itself　a　class　of　artificers；　by　whom　certain　fabrics　are

carried　to　as　high　excellence　as　can　be　given　by　patience；

quickness　of　perception　and　observation；　and　manual　dexterity；

without　any　considerable　knowledge　of　the　properties　of　objects：

such　as　some　of　the　cotton　fabrics　of　India。　These　artificers　are

fed　by　the　surplus　food　which　has　been　taken　by　the　government

and　its　agents　as　their　share　of　the　produce。　So　literally　is

this　the　case；　that　in　some　countries　the　workman；　instead　of

taking　his　work　home；　and　being　paid　for　it　after　it　is　finished；

proceeds　with　his　tools　to　his　customer's　house；　and　is　there

subsisted　until　the　work　is　complete。　The　insecurity；　however；　of

all　possessions　in　this　state　of　society；　induces　even　the

richest　purchasers　to　give　a　preference　to　such　articles　as；

being　of　an　imperishable　nature；　and　containing　great　value　in

small　bulk；　are　adapted　for　being　concealed　or　carried　off。　Gold

and　jewels；　therefore；　constitute　a　large　proportion　of　the

wealth　of　these　nations；　and　many　a　rich　Asiatic　carries　nearly

his　whole　fortune　on　his　person；　or　on　those　of　the　women　of　his

harem。　No　one；　except　the　monarch；　thinks　of　investing　his　wealth

in　a　manner　not　susceptible　of　removal。　He；　indeed；　if　he　feels

safe　on　his　throne；　and　reasonably　secure　of　transmitting　it　to

his　descendants；　sometimes　indulges　a　taste　for　durable　edifices；

and　produces　the　Pyramids；　or　the　Taj　Mehal　and　the　Mausoleum　at

Sekundra。　The　rude　manufactures　destined　for　the　wants　of　the

cultivators　are　worked　up　by　village　artisans；　who　are

remunerated　by　land　given　to　them　rent…free　to　cultivate；　or　by

fees　paid　to　them　in　kind　from　such　share　of　the　crop　as　is　left

to　the　villagers　by　the　government。　This　state　of　society；

however；　is　not　destitute　of　a　mercantile　class；　composed　of　two

divisions；　grain　dealers　and　money　dealers。　The　grain　dealers　do

not　usually　buy　grain　from　the　producers；　but　from　the　agents　of

government；　who；　receiving　the　revenue　in　kind；　are　glad　to

devolve　upon　others　the　business　of　conveying　it　to　the　places

where　the　prince；　his　chief　civil　and　military　officers；　the　bulk

of　his　troops；　and　the　artisans　who　supply　the　wants　of　these

various　persons；　are　assembled。　The　money　dealers　lend　to　the

unfortunate　cultivators；　when　ruined　by　bad　seasons　or　fiscal

exactions；　the　means　of　supporting　life　and　continuing　their

cultivation；　and　are　repaid　with　enormous　interest　at　the　next

harvest；　or；　on　a　larger　scale；　they　lend　to　the　government；　or

to　those　to　whom　it　has　granted　a　portion　of　the　revenue；　and　are

indemnified　by　assignments　on　the　revenue　collectors；　or　by

having　certain　districts　put　into　their　possession；　that　they　may

pay　themselves　from　the　revenues；　to　enable　them　to　do　which；　a

great　portion　of　the　powers　of　government　are　usually　made　over

simultaneously；　to　be　exercised　by　them　until　either　the

districts　are　redeemed；　or　their　receipts　have　liquidated　the

debt。　Thus；　the　commercial　operations　of　both　these　classes　of

dealers　take　pLace　principally　upon　that　part　of　the　produce　of

the　country　which　forms　the　revenue　of　the　government。　From　that

revenue　their　capital　is　periodically　replaced　with　a　profit；　and

that　is　also　the　source　from　which　their　original　funds　have

almost　always　been　derived。　Such；　in　its　general　features；　is　the

economical　condition　of　most　of　the　countries　of　Asia；　as　it　has

been　from　beyond　the　commencement　of　authentic　history；　and　is

still；　wherever　not　disturbed　by　foreign　influences。

　　　　In　the　agricultural　communities　of　ancient　Europe　whose　early

condition　is　best　known　to　us；　the　course　of　things　was

different。　These；　at　their　origin；　were　mostly　small

town…communities；　at　the　first　plantation　of　which；　in　an

unoccupied　country；　or　in　one　from　which　the　former　inhabitants

had　been　expelled；　the　land　which　was　taken　possession　of　was

regularly　divided；　in　equal　or　in　graduated　allotments；　among　the

families　composing　the　community。　In　some　cases；　instead　of　a

town　there　was　a　confederation　of　towns；　occupied　by　people　of

the　same　reputed　race；　and　who　were　supposed　to　have　settled　in

the　country　about　the　same　time。　Each　family　produced　its　own

food　and　the　materials　of　its　clothing；　which　were　worked　up

within　itself；　usually　by　the　women　of　the　family；　into　the

coarse　fabrics　with　which　the　age　was　contented。　Taxes　there　were

none；　as　there　were　either　no　paid　officers　of　government；　or　if

there　were；　their　payment　had　been　provided　for　by　a　reserved

portion　of　land；　cultivated　by　slaves　on　account　of　the　state；

and　the　army　consisted　of　the　body　of　citizens。　The　whole　produce

of　the　soil；　therefore；　belonged；　without　deduction；　to　the

family　which　cultivated　it。　So　long　as　the　process　of　events

permitted　this　disposition　of　property　to　last；　the　state　of

society　was；　for　the　majority　of　the　free　cultivators；　probably

not　an　undesirable　one；　and　under　it；　in　some　cases；　the　advance

of　mankind　in　intellectual　culture　was　extraordinarily　rapid　and

brilliant。　This　more　especially　happened　where；　along　with

advantageous　circumstances　of　race　and　climate；　and　no　doubt　with

many　favourable　accidents　of　which　all　trace　is　now　lost；　was

combined　the　advantage　of　a　position　on　the　shores　of　a　great

inland　sea；　the　other　coasts　of　which　were　already　occupied　by

settled　communities。　The　knowledge　which　in　such　a　position　was

acquired　of　foreign　productions；　and　the　easy　access　of　foreign

ideas　and　inventions；　made　the　chain　of　routine；　usually　so

strong　in　a　rude　people；　hang　loosely　on　these　communities。　To

speak　only　of　their　industrial　development；　they　early　acquired

variety　of　wants　and　desires；　which　stimulated　them　to　extract

from　their　own　soil　the　utmost　which　they　knew　how　to　make　it

yield；　and　when　their　soil　was　sterile；　or　after　they　had　reached

the　limit　of　its　capacity；　they　often　became　traders；　and　bought

up　the　productions　of　foreign　countries；　to　sell　them　in　other

countries　with　a　profit。

　　　　The　duration；　however；　of　this　state　of　things　was　from　the

first　precarious。　These　little　communities　lived　in　a　state　of

almost　perpetual　war。　For　this　there　were　many　causes。　In　the

ruder　and　purely　agricultural　communities　a　frequent　cause　was

the　mere　pressure　of　their　increasing　population　upon　their

limited　land；　aggravated　as　that　pressure　so　often　was　by

deficient　harvests；　in　the　rude　state　of　their　agriculture；　and

depending　as　they　did　for　food　upon　a　very　small　extent　of

country。　On　these　occasions；　the　community　often　emigrated　en

masse；　or　sent　forth　a　swarm　of　its　youth；　to　seek；　sword　in

hand；　for　some　less　warlike　people；　who　could　be　expelled　from

their　land；　or　detained　to　cultivate　it　as　slaves　for　the　benefit

of　their　despoilers。　What　the　less　advanced　tribes　did　from

necessity；　the　more　prosperous　did　from　ambition　and　the　military

spirit：　and　after　a　time　the　whole　of　these　city…communities　were

either　conquerors　or　conquered。　In　some　cases；　the　conquering

state　contented　itself　with　imposing　a　tribute　on　the　vanquished：

who　being；　in　consideration　of　that　burden；　freed　from　the

expense　and　trouble　of　their　own　military　and　naval　protection；

might　enjoy　under　it　a　considerable　share　of　economical

prosperity；　while　the　ascendant　community　obtained　a　surplus　of

wealth；　available　for　purposes　of　collective　luxury