political economy-第16部分

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d　long　labour　was　lost　in　a　year。　Consumers　have　gained　certainly；　but　their　gain　is　scarcely　perceptible　even　to　themselves。　By　laying　up　a　stock　of　goods　for　several　years　to　profit　by　their　cheapness；　they　have　also　included　themselves　in　the　general　embarrassment；　and　still　farther　retarded　the　period　when　the　balance　can　be　re…established　between　consumption　and　production。　　　　　According　to　the　former　organization　of　Europe；　all　states　did　not　make　pretences　to　all　kinds　of　industry。　Some　had　attached　themselves　to　agriculture；　others　to　navigation；　others　to　manufactures；　and　the　condition　of　these　latter；　even　in　prosperous　times；　could　not　have　appeared　so　worthy　of　envy　as　to　demand　prodigious　efforts　to　attain　it。　A　miserable　and　degraded　population　almost　always　produced　these　rich　stuffs；　these　elegant　ornaments；　this　furniture　which　it　was　never　destined　to　enjoy　and　if　the　men　who　directed　these　unhappy　workmen　sometimes　raised　immense　fortunes；　those　fortunes　were　as　frequently　destroyed。　The　development　of　nations　proceeds　naturally　in　all　directions；　it　is　scarcely　ever　prudent　to　obstruct　it；　but　it　is　no　less　dangerous　to　hasten　it；　and　the　governments　of　Europe；　by　having　of　all　hands　attempted　to　force　nations；　are　at　the　present　day　loaded　with　a　population；　which　they　have　created　by　requiring　superfluous　labour；　and　which　they　know　not　how　to　save　from　the　horrors　of　famine。　　　　　The　existence　of　this　manufacturing　population；　and　the　duty　of　providing　for　its　wants；　have　constrained　governments　to　alter　the　aim　of　their　legislation。　Formerly；　in　the　real　spirit　of　the　mercantile　system；　they　encouraged　manufactures；　in　order　to　sell　much　to　foreigners；　and　grow　rich　at　their　expense；　now；　perceiving　that　a　prohibitive　system　is　every　where　adopted；　or　like　to　be　adopted；　they　cannot　any　longer　count　on　the　custom　of　strangers；　and　therefore　study　to　find；　in　their　own　kingdom；　consumers　for　their　own　workmen；　in　other　words；　to　become　isolated　and　sufficient　for　themselves。　The　system　of　policy　at　present；　more　or　less　strictly　followed　by　all　the　nations　of　Europe；　destroys　all　the　advantages　of　commerce；　it　hinders　each　nation　from　profiting　by　the　superiorities　due　to　its　climate；　to　its　soil；　to　its　situation；　to　the　peculiar　character　of　its　people；　it　arms　man　against　man；　and　breaks　the　tie　which　was　destined　to　sooth　national　prejudices；　and　accelerate　the　civilization　of　the　world。　　　　　According　to　the　natural　progress　of　increasing　wealth；　when　capitals　are　yet　inconsiderable；　it　is　certainly　desirable　to　direct　them　rather　to　some　neighbouring　branch　of　trade；　than　to　one　which　is　very　remote；　and　as　the　trade　of　exportation　and　importation　gives　foreigners　one　half　of　its　profit；　and　the　natives　another；　a　country　which　has　little　capital　may　desire　to　employ　it　entirely　in　the　trade　of　its　interior；　or　for　its　own　use；　and　the　more　so；　because　if　the　market　is　near　the　producer；　the　same　capital　will　be　several　times　renewed　in　a　given　period；　whilst　another　capital；　destined　for　a　foreign　market；　will　scarcely　accomplish　a　single　renewal。　But　the　capitalist's　interest　will　always　direct　him　with　certainty；　in　such　cases　to　do　what　suits　the　country　best；　because　his　profit　is　proportioned　to　the　need　there　is　of　it；　and　consequently　to　the　direction　in　which　the　public　demand　carries　him。　　　　　Besides；　nations；　on　reckoning　up　their　produce　and　their　wants；　almost　constantly　forget　that　neighboring　foreigners　are　much　more　convenient　and　more　advantageous　producers　and　consumers　than　distant　countrymen。　The　relation　of　markets　on　the　two　banks　of　the　Rhine　is　much　more　important；　both　for　the　German　and　the　French　merchant；　than　the　relation　of　markets　between　the　Palatinate　and　Brandenburgh　is　for　the　former；　or　between　Alsace　and　Provence　for　the　latter。　　　　　The　ardour；　with　which　all　governments　have　excited　every　species　of　production；　by　means　of　their　restrictive　system；　has　brought　about　such　a　disproportion　between　labour　and　demand；　that　perhaps　it　has　become　necessary　for　every　state　to　think　first；　not　of　the　comfort；　but　of　the　existence　of　its　subjects；　and　to　maintain　those　barriers　which　have　been　so　imprudently　erected。　An　important　part　of　the　population　might；　perhaps；　be　cut　off　by　penury；　in　the　course　of　a　few　years；　and　it　is　reasonable　that　each　state　should　seek　to　preserve　itself　and　those　depending　on　it　from　such　a　calamity。　Yet；　we　cannot　without　pain；　behold　the　rivetting　of　this　anti…social　system；　and　the　abandonment　of　that　ancient　spirit　of　commerce；　which　triumphed　over　barbarism；　and　taught　hostile　hordes　to　know　and　esteem　each　other。　　　　　Governments；　after　having　attempted　to　give　the　national　producers　a　monopoly　in　their　own　country；　have　sometimes　endeavoured　to　procure　them　a　similar　advantage　in　foreign　countries；　by　treaties　of　commerce。　Such　actions；　always　subordinate　to　policy；　granted　to　a　favoured　nation　an　exemption　from　some　part　of　the　duties　required　from　others；　on　consideration　of　some　reciprocal　advantage。　It　cannot　be　doubted　that　such　an　exemption　was　advantageous　to　the　nation　in　whose　favour　it　was　granted；　but；　on　the　other　hand；　it　was　just　as　disadvantageous　to　the　nation　granting　it；　and　when　a　treaty　of　commerce　bore　a　concession　of　mutual　exemption；　each　state　should　have　discovered；　that　a　monopoly　granted　to　its　producers　was　too　dearly　purchased　by　a　monopoly　granted　to　foreigners；　against　its　consumers：　and　the　more　so；　as　there　existed　no　kind　of　relation　between　the　two　favoured　branches　of　trade。　Some　show　of　reason　may　be　discovered；　why　the　consumers　of　cloth　should　be　taxed　for　the　advantage　of　cloth　manufacturers；　but　there　is　no　shallow　of　reason　why　the　consumers　of　wine　in　England　should　experience　a　loss；　in　compensation　for　an　advantage　to　the　sellers　of　goods　in　Portugal。　　　　　No　treaty　of　commerce　can　fully　satisfy　the　greediness　of　merchants　desiring　a　monopoly；　and　therefore　governments　invented　the　fanatic　expedient　of　creating　in　a　colony　a　nation　expressly　to　be　purchasers　from　their　merchants。　The　colonists　were　prohibited　from　establishing　any　manufacture　at　home；　that　so　they　might　be　more　dependent　on　the　mother　country。　They　were　carefully　prevented　from　following　any　species　of　foreign　trade；　they　were　subjected　to　regulations　the　most　vexatious；　and　contrary　to　their　own　interests；　not　for　the　mother　country's　good；　but　for　the　good　of　a　small　number　of　merchants。　The　infinite　advantages　attached　to　a　new　country；　where　every　kind　of　labour　is　profitable；　because　every　thing　is　yet　to　do；　enabled　colonies　to　prosper；　although　they　were　continually　sacrificed。　As　their　raw　produce　was　fit　for　a　distant　trade；　they　had　it　in　their　power　to　support　a　most　unequal　exchange；　in　which　nothing　was　taken　from　them　that　the　buyer　could　procure　at　home；　but　their　rapid　increase　itself　bears　witness　against　the　system　which　has　founded　them；　they　have　prospered　by　a　system　diametrically　opposite　to　that　followed　by　the　mother　country。　The　exportation　of　all　raw　produce；　the　importation　of　all　wrought　produce；　has　been　encouraged　in　colonies；　and　have　presented　to　such　as　believe　in　the　existence；　and　calculate　the　state；　of　a　commercial　balance；　a　result　as　disadvantageous　for　themselves；　as　it　was　advantageous　for　the　mother　country。　Doubtless；　their　oppression　gave　the　latter　all　the　profits　of　a　monopoly；　yet；　in　a　very　circumscribed　market；　whilst　the　free　trade　of　all　Europe；　with　all　its　colonies；　would　have　been　more　advantageous　for　both；　by　infinitely　extending　the　market　of　the　one；　and　accelerating　the　progress　of　the　other。　What　justice　and　policy　should　have　taught；　force　will　obtain；　and　the　colonial　system　cannot　long　continue。　　　　　Governments；　in　the　last　place；　to　favour　commerce；　have　granted　it　bounties　and　drawbacks。　A　bounty　is　a　reward　which　the　state　decrees　to　the　manufacturer；　on　account　of　his　goods；　which　comes　to　him　in　the　shape　of　profit。　A　drawback　is　a　restitution　of　all　the　taxes；　which　a　piece　of　goods　had　paid；　granted　to　it　at　the　moment　of　its　exportation。　A　drawback　is　perfectly　just　and　reasonable。　It　leaves　the　national　producer；　in　the　foreign　market；　on　a　footing　of　equality　with　all　his　rivals；　whilst；　if　beforehand　be　had　paid　a　tax　in　his　own　country；　he　could　not　have　sustained　the　competition。　Bounties　are　the　strangest　encouragements　which　a　government　can　give。　They　may　be　justified　when　granted　for　the　fabrication　of　an　article；　the　production　of　which　it　is　necessary　to　procure　at　any　price：　but　when　granted　on　exported　goods；　as　often　happens；　government　pays　merchants；　at　the　expense　of　its　own　subjects；　that　foreigners　may　buy　cheaper　than　them。　　　　　Thus；　nearly　all　the　favours　which　governments　confer　on　trade　and　manufactures；　are　contrary　even　to　sound　policy　or　justice；　and；　judging　of　them　by　the　law　of　profit　and　loss；　we　should　infer；　that　all　this　attention；　bestowed　by　government　on　trade；　had　done　more　ill　than　good。　But　political　economy　is；　in　great　part；　a　moral　science。　After　having　calculated　the　interests　of　men；　it　ought　also　to　foresee　what　will　act　upon　their　passions。　Ruled；　as　they　are；　by　self…interest；　pointing　out　their　advantage　will　not　be　sufficient　to　determine　their　pursuit　of　it。　Nations　have　sometimes　need　of　being　shaken；　as　it　were；　to　be　roused　from　their　torpor。　The　small　weight　which　would　suffice　to　incline　the　balance；　with　a　calculating　people；　is　not　sufficient　when　that　balance　is　rusted　by　prejudice　and　long　continued　habits。　In　such　a　case；　a　skilful　administration　must　occasionally　submit　to　allow　a　real　and　calculable　loss；　in　order　to　destroy　an　old　custom；　or　change　a　destructive　prepossession。　When　rooted　prejudices　have　abandoned　to　disrespect　every　useful　and　industrious　profession；　when　a　nation　thinks　there　can　be　no　dignity　except　in　noble　indolence；　when　even　men　of　science　themselves；　carried　away　by　public　opinion；　blush　at　the　useful　applications　made　of　their　discoveries；　and　in　such　applications　see　nothing　but　what　they　call　the　cookery　of　their　sciences；　it　perhaps　becomes　necessary　to　grant　favours；　altogether　extraordinary；　to　the　industry　which　it　is　necessary　to　create；　to　fix　incessantly　the　thoughts　of　a　t