political economy-第25部分

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en　are　mutually　necessary　to　each　other。　Europe　has　a　double　need　of　the　subsistence　which　it　might　procure　from　Barbary；　if　this　magnificent　shore　of　Africa　were　given　back　to　civilization；　and　from　the　consumers　we　should　soon　find　there。　The　institution　of　property　is　the　result　of　social　conventions。　In　a　society　subjected　to　laws　and　a　regulating　government；　the　interest　of　each　may　be　implicitly　relied　on　for　producing　the　advantage　of　all；　because　the　aberrations　of　this　private　interest　are；　in　every　case　of　need；　limited　by　public　authority。　But；　in　the　great　human　society　formed　among　independent　nations；　there　is　no　law　or　general　government　to　repress　the　passions　of　each　sovereign：　besides；　the　interest　of　those　sovereigns　is　not　necessarily　conformable　to　that　of　their　subjects；　or；　to　speak　more　correctly；　the　one　is　contrary　to　the　other；　whenever　the　object　of　the　rulers　is　to　maintain　their　tyranny。　Thus　respect　for　the　pretended　right　of　properly　claimed　by　each　government　over　its　territory；　is　not　referrible　to　the　right　of　private　property；　and；　besides；　it　cannot　be　reciprocal。　The　same　circumstances　which　cause　a　tyrannical　government　to　impede　its　own　civilization；　render　it　equally　incapable　of　respecting　that　of　its　neighbours；　and　submitting　to　the　laws　of　nations。　　　　　But　whilst　more　than　three　quarters　of　the　habitable　globe　are；　by　the　faults　of　their　governments；　deprived　of　the　inhabitants　they　should　support；　we；　at　the　present　day；　in　almost　the　whole　of　Europe；　experience　the　opposite　calamity；　that　of　not　being　able　to　maintain　a　superabundant　population；　which　surpasses　the　proportion　of　labour　required；　and　which；　before　dying　of　poverty；　will　diffuse　its　sufferings　over　the　whole　class　of　such　as　live　by　the　labour　of　their　hands。　For　our　part；　we　owe　this　calamity　to　the　imprudent　zeal　of　our　governments。　With　us；　religious　instruction；　legislation；　social　organization；　every　thing　has　tended　to　produce　a　population；　the　existence　of　which　was　not　provided　for　beforehand。　The　labour　was　not　adjusted　to　the　number　of　men；　and；　frequently；　the　same　zeal　with　which　it　was　attempted　to　multiply　the　number　of　births；　was　afterwards　employed；　in　all　arts；　to　diminish　the　required　number　of　hands。　The　proportion　which　should　subsist　in　the　progress　of　the　different　departments　of　society　has　been　broken；　and　the　suffering　has　become　universal。　　　　　Mr　Malthus；　the　first　writer　who　awakened　public　attention　to　this　calamity　under　which　nations　have　long　suffered；　without　knowing　it；　whilst　he　gave　an　alarm　to　legislators；　did　not　reach　the　true　principles　which　he　seemed　on　the　road　to　find。　On　reading　his　writings；　one　is　stuck　at　once　with　an　essential　error　in　his　reasoning；　and　with　the　importance　of　the　facts　to　which　he　appeals。　Such　confusion；　in　a　matter　to　which　the　happiness　of　man　is　attached；　may　produce　the　most　fatal　consequences。　By　rigorously　applying　principles　deficient　in　accuracy；　the　most　grievous　errors　may　be　committed；　and　if；　on　the　other　hand；　the　error　is　discovered；　there　is　a　risk　of　simultaneously　rejecting　both　the　observations　and　the　precepts。　　　　　Mr　Malthus　established　as　a　principle　that　the　population　of　every　country　is　limited　by　the　quantity　of　subsistence　which　that　country　can　furnish。　This　proposition　is　true　only　when　applied　to　the　whole　terrestial　globe；　or　to　a　country　which　has　no　possibility　of　trade；　in　all　other　cases；　foreign　trade　modifies　it；　and；　farther；　which　is　more　important；　this　proposition　is　but　abstractly　true；　…　true　in　a　manner　inapplicable　to　political　economy。　Population　has　never　reached　the　limit　of　subsistence；　and　probably　it　never　will。　Long　before　the　population　can　be　arrested　by　the　inability　of　the　country　to　produce　more　food；　it　is　arrested　by　the　inability　of　the　population　to　purchase　that　food；　or　to　labour　in　producing　it。　　　　　The　whole　population　of　a　state；　says　Mr　Malthus；　may　be　doubled　every　twenty…five　years；　it　would　thus　follow　a　geometrical　progression：　but　the　labour　employed　to　meliorate　a　soil；　already　in　culture；　can　add　to　its　produce　nothing　but　quantities　continually　decreasing。　Admitting　that；　during　the　first　twenty…five　years；　the　produce　of　land　has　been　doubled；　during　the　second　we　shall　scarcely　succeed　in　compelling　it　to　produce　a　half　more；　then　a　third　more；　then　a　fourth。　Thus　the　progress　of　subsistence　will　not　follow　the　geometrical；　but　the　arithmetical　progression；　and；　in　the　course　of　two　centuries；　whilst　the　population　increases；　as　the　numbers；　1。　2；　4；　8；　16；　32；　64；　128；　subsistence　will　increase　not　faster　than　the　numbers；　1；　2；　3；　4；　5；　6；　7；　8。　　　　　This　reasoning；　which　serves　as　a　basis　to　the　system　of　Mr。　Malthus；　and　to　which　he　incessantly　appeals；　through　the　whole　course　of　his　book；　is　completely　sophistical。　It　opposes　the　possible　increase　of　the　human　population；　considered　abstractly；　and　without　regarding　circumstances；　to　the　positive　increase　of　animals　and　vegetables　in　a　confined　place；　under　circumstances　more　and　more　unfavourable。　They　ought　not　thus　to　be　compared。　Abstractly；　the　multiplication　of　food　follows　a　geometrical　progression；　no　less　than　the　multiplication　of　men。　It　follows　it　only　in　a　much　more　rapid　manner。　In　a　given　space　and　time；　this　progression　is　not　followed　any　more　by　the　one　species　than　the　other。　Population　is　arrested　first；　and　arrests　subsistence　in　its　turn；　when　the　obstacle　is　removed；　both　begin　again　to　increase；　till　they　reach　a　new　limit；　equally　common　to　both；　and　the　history　of　the　universe　has　never　yet　presented　the　example　of　a　country　in　which　the　multiplication　of　food　could　not　be　more　rapid　than　that　of　the　co…existent　population。　　　　　In　a　state　absolutely　savage；　men　live　on　the　produce　of　hunting　and　fishing。　The　fish　and　the　game　are　multiplied　like　man；　in　a　geometrical　progression；　but　much　more　rapid　than　the　one　he　follows。　Man；　it　is　true；　hinders　their　reproduction　by　destroying　them；　but；　on　the　other　hand；　they　arrest　his；　for　it　is　not　certainly　among　nations　of　hunters　that　the　population　is　doubled　every　twenty…five　years；　and　whenever　this　destruction　is　suspended；　the　reproduction　of　game　will　be　much　more　rapid　than　that　of　men。　　　　　The　progress　of　civilization　substitutes　the　pastoral　life　for　a　life　of　hunting；　and　the　natural　produce　of　the　ground；　better　managed；　is　sufficient　for　a　much　more　numerous　population　of　men　and　of　animals。　The　deserts；　which　scarcely　support　five　hundred　Cherokee　hunters；　would　be　sufficient　for　ten　thousand　Tartar　shepherds；　with　all　their　flocks；　the　multiplication　of　the　latter　is　always　much　more　rapid　than　that　of　men；　whilst　the　production　of　a　man　requires　twenty…five　years；　that　of　an　ox　requires　but　five；　of　a　sheep　but　two；　of　a　hog　but　one。　The　number　of　oxen　may　be　doubled　in　six　years；　that　of　sheep　in　three；　that　of　hogs　may　be　rendered　ten　times　as　great　in　two　years。　Whenever　a　shepherd　gains　possession　of　a　country　formerly　abandoned　to　hunting；　the　multiplication　of　his　flocks　will　greatly　precede　that　of　his　family；　when；　afterwards；　one　of　the　two　is　arrested；　the　other　will　be　so　too。　　　　　But　when　civilization　makes　a　new　step；　pastoral　nations　abandon　their　flocks　for　agriculture；　and；　instead　of　trusting　to　the　natural　productions　of　the　vegetable　kingdom；　they　produce　and　multiply　them　by　their　labours。　It　is　calculated　that　thirty　families　may　live　on　the　corn　produced　by　a　piece　of　ground；　which　would　have　supported　only　a　single　family　by　its　produce　in　cattle。　At　the　time；　therefore；　when　a　nation　passes　from　the　pastoral　to　the　agricultural　state；　it　in　some　sense　acquires　a　country　thirty　times　as　large　as　the　one　it　formerly　occupied。　If　the　whole　of　this　country　is　not　cultivated；　if　even　in　the　most　civilized　kingdoms；　there　remains　a　vast　extent　nf　fertile　land　still　employed　in　unprofitable　pasturage；　it　is　an　evident　proof　that　other　causes　than　want　of　subsistence　prevent　the　development　of　population。　　　　　The　multiplication　of　vegetables　follows　a　geometrical　progression　much　more　rapid　still　than　the　multiplication　of　cattle。　In　common　tillage；　corn　increases　five…fold　in　the　course　of　a　year；　potatoes　ten…fold　in　the　same　space　of　time。　The　latter　vegetable；　to　produce　a　given　quantity　of　food；　scarcely　requires　the　tenth　part　of　the　ground　which　corn　would　occupy。　Yet　even　in　the　most　populous　countries；　men　are　very　far　from　having　planted　all　their　corn　fields　with　potatoes；　from　having　sown　all　their　pasturages　with　corn；　from　having　converted　into　pasturage　all　their　woods；　all　their　deserts　abandoned　to　hunting。　Those　things　are　a　fund　of　reserve　remaining　to　every　nation；　and；　by　means　of　them；　if　a　new　demand　for　labour　should　suddenly　cause　the　population　to　increase　as　rapidly　as　the　nature　of　man　can　permit；　the　multiplication　of　food　would　still　precede　it。　　　　　The　demand　for　labour　which　the　capital　of　a　country　can　pay；　and　not　the　quantity　of　food　which　that　country　can　produce；　regulates　the　population。　In　political　economy；　nothing　is　reckoned　a　demand　but　what　is　accompanied　with　a　sufficient　compensation　for　the　thing　demanded。　If　no　fault　has　been　committed　on　the　part　of　government；　if　no　dangerous　prejudice　has　been　diffused　among　the　people；　very　few　men　will　think　of　marrying；　and　burdening　their　hands　with　the　subsistence　of　individuals　unable　to　procure　it　themselves；　till　they　have　first　acquired　an　establishment。　But　whenever　a　new　demand　for　labour　raises　their　wages；　and　thus　increases　their　revenue；　they　hasten　to　satisfy　one　of　the　first　laws　of　nature；　and　seek　in　marriage　a　new　source　of　happiness。　If　the　rise　of　wages　was　but　momentary；　if；　for　example；　the　favours　granted　by　government　suddenly　give　a　great　development　to　a　species　of　manufacture；　which；　after　its　commencement；　cannot　be　maintained；　the　workmen；　whose　remuneration　was　double　during　some　time；　will　all　have　married　to　profit　by　their　opulence；　and　then；　at　the　moment　when　their　trade　declines；　families　disproportionate　to　the　actual　demand　of　labour　will　be　plunged　into　the　most　dreadful　wretchedness。　　　　　It　is　those　variations　in　the　demand　for　labour；　this　sort　of　revolution　so　frequent　in　the　lives　of　poor　artisans；　that　giv