political economy-第3部分

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ore　precisely　the　system　of　the　economists。　He　begins　by　asserting　that　gold　and　silver；　the　signs　of　wealth；　the　means　of　exchange；　the　price　of　all　commodities；　do　not　themselves　constitute　the　wealth　of　states；　and　that　no　judgment　can　be　formed　concerning　the　prosperity　of　a　nation；　from　the　abundance　of　its　precious　metals。　He　next　proceeds　to　survey　the　different　classes　of　men；　all　of　whom；　occupied　in　gaining　money；　and　causing　wealth　to　circulate；　even　when　acquiring　it　for　themselves；　are　not；　according　to　him；　occupied　with　any　thing　besides　exchange。　He　endeavours　to　distinguish　the　classes　possessed　of　a　creative　power；　it　is　amongst　them　that　wealth　must　originate；　all　the　transactions　of　commerce　appearing　to　be　nothing　else　but　the　transmission　of　that　wealth　from　hand　to　hand。　　　　　The　merchant　who　carries　the　productions　of　both　hemispheres　from　one　continent　to　the　other；　and　on　returning　to　the　ports　of　his　own　country；　obtains；　at　the　sale　of　his　cargo；　a　sum　double　of　that　with　which　he　began　his　voyage；　does　not；　after　all；　appear；　in　the　eyes　of　Quesnay；　to　have　performed　any　thing　but　an　exchange。　If；　in　the　colonies；　he　has　sold　the　manufactures　of　Europe　at　a　higher　price　than　they　cost　him；　the　reason　is；　they　were　in　fact　worth　more。　Together　with　their　prime　cost；　he　must　also　be　reimbursed　for　the　value　of　his　time；　his　cares；　his　subsistence；　and　that　of　his　sailors　and　agents　during　the　voyage。　He　has　a　like　reimbursement　to　claim　on　the　cotton　or　sugar　he　brings　back　to　Europe。　If；　at　the　end　of　his　voyage；　any　profit　remains；　it　is　the　fruit　of　his　economy　and　good　management。　The　wages　allowed　him　by　consumers；　for　the　trouble　he　has　undergone；　are　greater　than　the　sum　he　had　expended。　It　is　the　nature　of　wages；　however；　to　be　entirely　expended　by　him　who　earns　them；　and　had　this　merchant　done　so；　he　would　have　added　nothing　to　the　national　wealth；　by　the　labour　of　his　whole　life；　because　the　produce　which　he　brings　back　does　nothing　more　than　exactly　replace　the　valuE　of　the　produce　given　for　it；　added　to　his　own　wages；　and　the　wages　of　all　that　were　engaged　with　him　in　the　business。　　　　　Agreeably　to　this　reasoning；　the　French　philosopher　gave　to　transport　trade　the　name　of　economical　trade；　which　it　still　retains。　This　species　of　commerce；　he　asserts；　is　not　destined　to　provide　for　the　wants　of　the　nation　that　engages　in　it；　but　merely　to　serve　the　convenience　of　two　foreign　nations。　The　carrying　nation　acquires　from　it　no　other　profit　than　wages；　and　cannot　grow　rich　except　by　the　saving　which　economy　enables　it　to　make　on　them。　　　　　Quesnay；　next　adverting　to　manufactures；　considers　them　an　exchange；　just　the　same　as　commerce；　but　instead　of　having　in　view　two　present　values；　their　primitive　contract　is；　in　his　opinion；　an　exchange　of　the　present　against　the　future。　The　merchandise　produced　by　the　labour　of　the　artisan　is　but　the　equivalent　of　his　accumulated　wages。　During　his　labour；　he　had　consumed　the　fruits　of　the　earth；　and　the　work　produced　by　him　is　nothing　but　their　value。　　　　　The　economist　next　directs　his　attention　to　agriculture。　The　labourer　appears　to　him　to　be　in　the　same　condition　as　the　merchant　and　the　artisan。　Like　the　latter；　he　makes　with　the　earth　an　exchange　of　the　present　against　the　future。　The　crops　produced　by　him　represent　the　accumulated　value　of　his　labour；　they　pay　his　hire；　to　which　he　has　the　same　right　as　the　artisan　to　his　wages；　or　the　merchant　to　his　profit。　But　when　this　hire　has　been　deducted；　there　remains　a　net　revenue；　which　was　not　be　found　in　manufactures　and　commerce；　it　is　what　the　labourer　pays　the　proprietor　for　the　use　of　his　land。　This　revenue；　Quesnay　thinks；　is　of　a　nature　quite　different　from　any　other。　It　is　not　wages；　it　is　not　the　result　of　an　exchange；　it　is　the　price　of　the　earth's　spontaneous　labour；　the　fruit　of　nature's　beneficence；　and　since　it　does　not　represent　pre…existent　wealth；　it　alone　must　be　the　source　of　every　kind　of　wealth。　Tracing　the　value　of　all　other　commodities；　under　all　its　transformations；　Quesnay　still　discovers　its　first　origin　in　the　fruits　of　the　earth。　The　labours　of　the　husbandman；　of　the　artisan；　of　the　merchant；　consume　those　fruits　in　the　shape　of　wages　and　produce　them　under　new　forms。　The　proprietor　alone　receives　them　at　their　source　from　the　hands　of　nature　herself；　and　by　means　of　them　is　enabled　to　pay　the　wages　of　all　his　countrymen；　who　labour　only　for　him。　　　　　This　ingenious　system　totally　supplanted　that　of　the　merchants。　The　economists　denied　the　existence　of　that　commercial　balance　to　which　their　antagonists　attached　so　much　importance；　they　asserted　the　impossibility　of　that　accumulation　of　gold　and　silver　which　the　others　expected　from　it；　throughout　the　nation；　they　could　see　only　proprietors　of　land；　the　sole　dispensers　of　the　national　fortune；　productive　workmen；　or　labourers　producing　the　revenue　of　the　former。　and　a　hired　class；　in　which　they　ranked　merchants　also　denying　to　them；　as　to　the　artisans；　the　faculty　of　producing　any　thing。　　　　　The　plans；　which　these　two　sects　recommended　to　governments；　differed　not　less　than　their　principles。　While　the　mercantilists　wished　authority　to　interfere　in　every　thing；　the　economists　incessantly　repeated　laissez　faire　et　laissez　passer　（let　every　man　do　as　he　pleases；　and　every　thing　take　its　course；）　for　as　the　public　interest　consists　in　the　union　of　all　individual　interests；　individual　interest　will　guide　each　man　more　surely　to　the　public　interest　than　any　government　can　do。　　　　　An　excessive　ferment　was　excited　in　France　by　the　system　of　the　economists。　The　government　of　that　nation　allowed　the　people　to　talk　about　public　affairs；　but　not　to　understand　them。　The　discussion；　of　Quesnay's　theory　was　sufficiently　unshackled；　but　none　of　the　facts　or　documents　in　the　hands　of　the　administration；　were　presented　to　the　public　eye。　In　the　system　of　the　French　economists；　it　is　easy　to　discern　the　effects　produced　by　this　mixture　of　ingenious　theory　and　involuntary　ignorance。　It　seduced　the　people；　because　they　were　now　for　the　first　time　occupied　with　their　own　public　affairs。　But；　during　these　discussions；　a　free　nation；　possessed　of　the　right　to　examine　its　own　public　affairs；　was　producing　a　system　not　less　ingenious；　and　much　better　supported　by　fact　and　observation；　a　system　which；　after　a　short　struggle；　at　length　cast　its　predecessors　into　the　shade；　for　truth　always　triumphs　in　the　end；　over　dreams；　however　brilliant。　　　　　Adam　Smith；　author　of　this　third　system；　which　represents　labour　as　the　sole　origin　of　wealth；　and　economy　as　the　sole　means　of　accumulating　it；　has；　in　one　sense；　carried　the　science　of　political　economy　to　perfection；　at　a　single　step。　Experience；　no　doubt；　has　disclosed　new　truths　to　us；　the　experience　of　late　years；　in　particular；　has　forced　us　to　make　sad　discoveries：　but　in　completing　the　system　of　Smith；　that　experience　has　also　confirmed　it。　Of　the　various　succeeding　authors；　no　one　has　sought　any　other　theory。　Some　have　applied　what　he　advanced　to　the　administration　of　different　counties；　others　have　confirmed　it　by　new　experiments　and　new　observations；　some　have　expanded　it　by　developments；　which　flow　from　the　principles　laid　down　by　him；　some　have　even　here　and　there　detected　errors　in　his　work；　but　it　has　been　by　following　out　the　truths　which　he　taught　and　rectifying　them　by　light　borrowed　from　its　author。　Never　did　philosopher　effect　a　more　complete　revolution　in　any　science：　for　those　even　who　dissent　from　his　doctrine　acknowledge　his　authority；　sometimes　they　attack；　solely　because　they　do　not　understand　him；　most　commonly；　they　flatter　themselves　with　the　belief　of　still　following；　even　while　they　contradict　him。　We　shall　devote　the　rest　of　this　article　to　explain　the　science　which　he　taught　us；　though　in　an　order　different　from　his。　We　shall　arrange　it　under　the　six　following　heads：　Formation　and　Progress　of　Wealth：　Territorial　Wealth；　Commercial　Wealth；　Money；　Taxes；　and　Population。

Chapter　2

Formation　and　Progress　of　Wealth

　　　　Man　brings　into　the　world　with　him　certain　wants；　which　he　must　satisfy　in　order　to　live；　certain　desires　which　lead　him　to　expect　happiness　from　particular　enjoyments；　and　a　certain　industry　or　aptitude　for　labour；　which　enables　him　to　satisfy　the　requisitions　of　both。　His　wealth　originates　in　this　industry：　his　wants　and　desires　are　its　employments。　All　that　man　values　is　created　by　his　industry；　all　that　he　creates　is　destined　to　be　consumed　in　satisfying　his　wants　and　desires。　But；　between　the　moment　of　its　production　by　labour；　and　its　consumption　by　enjoyment；　the　thing　destined　for　man's　use　may　have　an　existence　more　or　less　durable。　It　is　this　thing；　this　accumulated　and　still　unconsumed　fruit　of　labour；　which　is　called　wealth。　　　　　Wealth　may　exist　not　only　without　any　sign　of　exchange；　or　without　money；　but　even　without　any　possibility　of　exchange；　or　without　trade。　Suppose　a　man　to　be　left　on　a　desert　island；　the　undisputed　property　of　this　whole　island　is　not　wealth；　whatever　be　the　natural　fertility　of　its　soil；　the　abundance　of　the　game　straying　in　its　forests；　of　the　fish　sporting　on　its　shores；　or　the　mines　concealed　in　its　bosom。　On　the　contrary；　amid　all　these　benefits　presented　him　by　nature；　the　man　may　sink　to　the　lowest　degree　of　penury；　and　die　perhaps　of　hunger。　But；　if　his　industry　enables　him　to　catch　some　of　the　animals　that　wander　in　his　woods：　and　if；　instead　of　consuming　them　immediately；　he　reserves　them　for　his　future　wants；　if；　in　this　interval；　he　gets　them　tamed　and　multiplied；　so　that　he　can　live　on　their　milk；　or　associate　them　to　his　labour；　he　is　then　beginning　to　acquire　wealth；　because　labour　has　gained　him　the　possession　of　these　animals；　and　a　fresh　labour　has　rendered　them　domestic。　The　measure　of　his　wealth　will　not　be　the　price；　which　he　might　obtain　for　his　property　in　exchange；　because　he　is　debarred　from　all　exchange；　but　the　length　of　time　during　which　no　farther　labour　will　be　requisite　to　satisfy　his　wants；　compared　with　the　extent　of　those　wants。　　　　　By　subduing　those　animals；　the　man　has　made　them　his　property　and　wealth；　by　subduing　the　ground；　he　will；　in　like　manner；　convert　it　into　property　and　wealth。　His　island　is　destitute　o