political economy-第5部分

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　increased　its　importance。　At　first；　every　one　procured　what　he　himself　intended　to　consume；　but　when　each　had　come　to　work　for　all；　the　production　of　all　must　be　consumed　by　all；　and　each；　in　what　he　produced；　must　have　an　eye　to　the　final　demand　of　the　society；　for　which　he　destined　the　fruit　of　his　labour。　This　demand；　though　not　well　ascertained　by　him；　was　limited　in　quantity。　for；　in　order　to　continue　his　expenditure；　every　one　must　confine　it　by　certain　restrictions；　and　the　sum　of　those　private　expenditures　constituted　that　of　the　society。　The　distinction　between　capital　and　income；　which　in　the　Solitary's　case　was　still　confused；　became　essential　in　society。　The　social　man　was　under　the　necessity　of　adjusting　his　consumption　to　his　income；　and　the　society；　of　which　he　formed　part；　were　compelled　to　observe　the　same　rule；　without　incurring　ruin；　they　could　not　annually　consume　more　than　their　annual　income；　leaving　their　capital　untouched。　All　that　they　produced；　however；　was　destined　for　consumption；　and　if　their　annual　products；　when　carried　to　the　destined　market；　found　no　purchaser；　reproduction　was　arrested；　and　the　nation　ruined　as　before。　We　shall　attempt　to　explain　this　double　relation；　at　once　so　essential　and　so　delicate；　by　showing；　on　the　one　hand；　how　income　springs　from　capital；　on　the　other；　how　what　is　income　for　one　may　be　capital　for　a　second。　　　　　To　the　Solitary；　every　kind　of　wealth　was　a　provision　made　beforehand　against　the　moment　of　necessity；　yet　still　in　this　provision　he　distinguished　two　things　…　the　part　which　it　suited　his　economy　to　keep　in　reserve　for　immediate；　or　nearly　immediate　use；　and　the　part　which　he　would　not　need　before　the　time　when　he　might　obtain　it　by　a　new　production。　One　portion　of　his　corn　was　to　support　him　till　the　next　harvest；　another　portion；　set　apart　for　seed；　was　to　bring　forth　its　fruit　the　following　year。　　　　　The　formation　of　society；　the　introduction　of　exchange；　allowed　him　almost　indefinitely　to　multiply　this　seed；　…　this　fruit…bearing　portion　of　accumulated　wealth。　It　is　what　we　name　capital。　　　　　The　ground　and　his　animals　were　all　that　man　could　force　to　work　in　concert　with　him；　but；　in　society；　the　rich　man　could　force　the　poor　to　work　in　concert　with　him。　After　having　set　apart　what　corn　was　necessary　till　the　next　harvest；　it　suited　him　to　employ　the　remaining　surplus　of　corn　in　feeding　other　men；　that　they　might　cultivate　the　ground　and　make　fresh　corn　for　him：　that　they　might　spin　and　weave　his　hemps　and　wools；　that；　in　a　word；　they　might　take　out　of　his　hands　the　commodity　ready　for　being　consumed；　and　at　the　expiration　of　a　certain　period；　return　him　another　commodity；　of　a　greater　value；　likewise　destined　for　consumption。　Wages　were　the　price　at　which　the　rich　man　obtained　the　poor　man's　labour　in　exchange。　The　division　of　labour　had　produced　the　distinction　of　ranks。　The　person　who　had　limited　his　efforts　to　perform　only　one　very　simple　operation　in　a　manufacture；　had　made　himself　dependent　on　whoever　chose　to　employ　him。　He　no　longer　produced　a　complete　work；　but　merely　the　part　of　a　work；　in　which　he　required　not　only　the　cooperation　of　other　workmen；　but　also　raw　materials；　proper　implements；　and　a　trader　to　undertake　the　exchange　of　the　article　which　he　had　contributed　to　finish。　Whenever　he　bargained　with　a　master…workman　for　the　exchange　of　labour　against　subsistence；　the　condition　he　stood　in　was　always　disadvantageous；　since　his　need　of　subsistence　and　his　inability　to　procure　it　of　himself；　were　far　greater　than　the　master's　need　of　labour；　and　therefore　he　almost　constantly　narrowed　his　demand　to　bare　necessaries；　without　which　the　stipulated　labour　could　not　have　proceeded；　whilst　the　master　alone　profited　from　the　increase　of　productive　power　brought　about　by　the　division　of　labour。　　　　　The　master；　who　hired　workmen；　was　situated；　in　all　points；　exactly　as　the　husbandman　who　sows　the　ground。　The　wages　paid　to　his　workmen　were　a　kind　of　seed　which　he　entrusted　to　them；　and　expected　in　a　given　time　to　bring　forth　fruit。　Like　the　husbandman；　he　did　not　sow　all　his　productive　wealth；　a　part　of　it　had　been　devoted　to　such　buildings；　or　machines；　or　implements；　as　make　labour　more　easy　and　productive；　just　in　the　way　that　a　part　of　the　husbandman's　wealth　was　devoted　to　permanent　works；　destined　to　render　the　ground　more　fertile。　It　is　thus　that　we　see　the　different　kinds　of　wealth　springing　up　and　separating；　whilst　each　exerts　a　different　influence　on　its　own　reproduction。　The　funds　of　consumption；　such　as　domestic　necessaries；　do　not　any　longer　produce　fruit；　after　each　has　secured　them　for　his　own　use；　fixed　capital；　such　as　improvement　of　the　soil；　canals　of　irrigation；　and　machinery；　during　the　progress　of　its　own　slow　consumption；　co…operates　with　labour　of　which　it　augments　the　products；　and；　lastly；　circulating　capital；　such　as　seed；　wages；　and　raw　materials；　destined　to　be　wrought；　is　consumed　annually；　or　even　more　rapidly；　in　order　to　be　again　re…produced。　It　is　essentially　important　to　remark；　that　those　three　kinds　of　wealth　are　all　equally　advancing　towards　consumption。　But　the　first　when　consumed　is　absolutely　destroyed；　for　societies；　as　for　individuals；　it　is　merely　an　expense：　whereas　the　second　and　third；　after　being　consumed；　are　re…produced　under　a　new　form；　and　for　societies；　as　for　individuals；　the　consumption　of　them　is　a　putting　out　to　profit；　or　the　circulation　of　capitals。　　　　　We　shall　better　understand　this　movement　of　wealth；　which；　perhaps；　it　is　difficult　to　follow；　by　fixing　our　observation　on　a　single　family　engaged　in　the　simplest　of　all　speculations。　A　solitary　farmer　has　reaped　a　hundred　bags　of　corn；　and　is　destitute　of　any　market　to　which　he　can　carry　it。　At　all　events；　this　corn　must　be　consumed　within　the　year；　otherwise　it　will　be　worth　nothing　to　the　farmer。　But　he　and　his　family　may　require　only　thirty　bags　of　it；　this　is　his　expense：　another　thirty　may　be　employed　to　support　workmen　engaged　in　felling　the　forests；　or　draining　the　marshes　of　the　neighbourhood；　to　put　them　under　culture；　this　will　be　converting　thirty　bags　into　fixed　capital：　and；　finally；　the　remaining　forty　bags　may　be　sown；　and　formed　into　a　circulating　capital；　in　place　of　the　twenty　bags　sown　the　preceding　year。　The　hundred　are　thus　consumed；　but　seventy　of　them　are　put　out　to　profit；　they　will　reappear　partly　at　the　next　harvest；　partly　at　those　which　follow。　By　this　means；　in　consuming　he　will　have　saved。　Yet　the　limits　of　such　an　operation　are　easily　discerned。　If；　this　year；　out　of　the　hundred　bags　which　he　reaped；　he　could　get　no　more　than　sixty　eaten；　who　will　eat　the　two　hundred　bags　produced　next　year　by　the　augmentation　of　his　seed？*　　　　　Resuming　these　three　sorts　of　wealth；　which；　as　we　have　seen；　become　distinct　in　a　private　family；　let　us　now　consider　each　sort　with　regard　to　the　whole　nation；　and　see　how　the　national　revenue　may　arise　from　this　division。　　　　　As　the　farmer　required　a　primitive　quantity　of　labour　to　be　expended　in　cutting　down　the　forests；　and　draining　the　marshes　which　he　meant　to　cultivate；　so；　for　every　kind　of　enterprise；　there　is　required　a　primitive　quantity　of　labour　to　facilitate　and　augment　the　circulating　capital。　The　ore　cannot　be　obtained　till　the　mine　is　opened；　canals　must　be　dug；　machinery　and　mills　must　be　constructed；　before　they　can　be　used；　manufactories　must　be　built；　and　looms　set　up；　before　the　wool；　the　hemp；　or　the　silk　can　be　weaved。　This　first　advance　is　always　accomplished　by　labour；　this　labour　is　always　represented　by　wages；　and　these　wages　are　always　exchanged　for　necessaries　of　life；　which　the　workmen　consume　in　executing　their　task。　Hence　what　we　have　called　fixed　capital；　is　a　part　of　the　annual　consumption；　transformed　into　durable　establishments；　calculated　to　increase　the　productive　power　of　future　labour。　Such　establishments　themselves　grow　old；　decay；　and　are　slowly　consumed　in　their　turn；　after　having　long　contributed　to　augment　the　annual　production。　　　　　As　the　farmer　required　seed；　which；　after　being　committed　to　the　earth；　was　returned　fivefold　in　harvest；　so　likewise；　every　undertaker　of　useful　labour　requires　raw　materials　to　work　upon；　and　wages　for　his　workmen；　equivalent　to　the　necessaries　of　life　consumed　by　them　in　their　labour。　His　operations　thus　begin　with　a　consumption；　and　this　is　followed　by　a　reproduction　which　should　be　more　abundant；　since　it　must　be　equivalent　to　the　raw　materials　worked　upon；　so　the　necessaries　of　life　consumed　by　his　workmen　in　their　labour；　to　the　sum　by　which　his　machinery　and　all　his　fixed　capitals　have　been　deteriorated　during　the　production；　and　lastly　to　the　profit　of　all　concerned　in　the　labour；　who　have　supported　its　fatigues　solely　in　the　hope　of　gaining　by　it。　The　farmer　sowed　twenty　bags　of　corn　to　reap　a　hundred；　the　manufacturer　will　make　a　calculation　nearly　similar。　And　as　the　farmer　at　harvest　must　recover　not　only　a　compensation　for　his　seed；　but　likewise　for　all　his　labours；　so　the　manufacturer　must　find　in　his　production；　not　the　raw　materials　only；　but　all　the　wages　of　his　workmen；　all　the　interests　and　profits　of　his　fixed　capital；　with　all　the　interests　and　profits　of　his　circulating　capital。　　　　　In　the　last　place；　the　farmer　may　augment　his　seed　every　year；　but　he　will　not　fail　to　recollect　that；　since　his　crops　increase　in　the　same　necessaries；　he　is　not　sure　of　always　finding　men　to　eat　them。　The　manufacturer；　in　like　manner；　devoting　the　savings　of　each　year　to　increase　his　re…production；　must　recollect　the　necessity　of　finding　purchasers　and　consumers　for　the　increasing　products　of　his　establishment。　　　　　Since　the　fund　destined　for　consumption　no　longer　produces　any　thing；　and　since　each　man　strives　incessantly　to　preserve　and　augment　his　fortune；　each　will　also　restrict　his　consumable　fund；　and　instead　of　accumulating　in　his　house　a　quantity　of　necessaries　greatly　superior　to　what　he　can　consume；　he　will　augment　his　fixed　or　circulating　capital；　by　all　that　he　does　not　expend。　In　the　present　condition　of　society；　a　part　of　the　fund　destined　for　consumption　remains　in　the　retail…dealer's　hand；　awaiting　the　buyer's　confidence；　another　part　destined　to　be　consumed　very　slowly；　as　houses；　furniture；　carriages；　horse