political economy-第7部分

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uying。　The　one　drew　more　advantages　from　the　money　which　he　received；　than　he　would　have　done　from　his　merchandise；　the　other　more　advantage　from　the　merchandise　which　he　acquired；　than　he　would　have　done　from　his　money。　Both　parties　had　gained；　and　hence　the　nation　gained　doubly　by　their　bargain。　On　the　same　principle　when　a　master　set　any　workman　to　labour；　and　gave　him　in　exchange　for　the　work　expected　to　be　done；　a　wage　which　corresponded　to　the　workman's　maintenance　during　his　labour；　…　both　these　contractors　gained；　the　workman　because　he　had　received　in　advance　the　fruit　of　his　labour　before　it　was　accomplished；　…　the　master；　because　this　workman's　labour　was　worth　more　than　his　wages。　The　nation　gained　with　both；　for　as　the　national　wealth　must；　at　the　long　run；　be　realized　in　enjoyment；　Whatever　augments　the　enjoyment　of　individuals；　must　be　considered　as　a　gain　for　all。　　　　　Thus　the　labour　of　man　created　wealth；　but　wealth；　in　its　turn；　created　the　labour　of　man。　Wherever　wealth　offered　a　profit；　a　wage；　a　subsistence；　it　produced　a　class　of　men；　eager　to　acquire　them。　The　accumulation　of　primary　labour　had　created　the　value　of　land；　by　unfolding　its　productive　power。　This　power；　as　it　seconded　the　labour；　of　man；　henceforth　became　a　species　of　wealth；　and　a　person　possessed　of　land　might；　without　himself　labouring；　obtain　payment　for　surrendering　the　use　of　it　to　such　as　laboured。　Hence　the　origin　of　sales　and　leases　of　land。　The　farmer　again　might　hire　workmen　to　labour；　and　thus　might　acquire　the　advantages　attached　to　exchanging　present　subsistence　against　distant　produce。　He　incurred　all　the　charges　of　cultivation；　he　drew　all　its　profits；　and　left　to　his　workmen　nothing　but　their　wages。　Thus　the　revenues　of　land；　all　comprised　in　the　annual　crop；　were　divided　among　three　classes　of　men；　under　the　name　of　rent；　profit；　and　wages；　whilst　a　surplus　included　the　seed　and　the　farmer's　advance。　　　　　The　manufacturer　again　possessed　machinery　and　materials：　he　offered　to　his　labourers　an　immediate　subsistence　for　the　fruit　of　a　labour　which　required　time　and　long　advances。　He　enabled　them　to　live；　he　furnished　them　with　lodging；　tools；　machinery；　and　paid　himself　with　interest　by　their　work。　If；　in　his　own　hand；　he　had　not　enough　of　accumulated　wealth；　or　enough　of　the　money　which　represents　it；　to　provide　his　workmen　with　all　the　advances　which　their　enterprise　required；　and　to　wait　for　the　sale　of　their　labour；　he　borrowed　money；　and　paid　the　lender　an　interest；　analogous　to　the　rent　which　a　farmer　pays　his　landlord。　The　labour　of　the　workmen　employed　by　him　annually　produced　a　certain　quantity　of　goods；　in　the　value　of　which　were　to　be　included　the　interest　of　capital　for　the　money…lender；　the　rent　of　implements；　machines；　immovables；　and　all　kinds　of　fixed　capital；　the　profits　of　the　head　manufacturer；　the　wages　of　his　workmen；　and；　lastly；　the　capital　expended　in　raw　materials；　together　with　the　whole　of　that　capital　which；　as　it　circulates　annually　in　the　manufactory；　must　be　deducted　from　its　annual　produce；　in　order　to　leave　the　net　revenue。　　　　　The　produce　of　the　soil　and　of　manufactories　belonged　often　to　climates　very　distant　from　those　inhabited　by　their　consumers。　A　class　of　men　undertook　to　facilitate　all　kinds　of　exchange；　on　condition　of　sharing　in　the　profits　which　it　yields。　These　men　gave　money　to　the　producer；　at　the　time　when　his　work　was　finished　and　ready　for　sale；　after　which　having　transported　the　merchandise　to　the　place　where　it　was　wanted；　they　waited　the　consumer's　convenience；　and　retailed　to　him　in　parcels　what　he　could　not　purchase　all　at　once。　They　did　service　to　every　one；　and　repaid　themselves　for　it　by　the　share　which　is　named　profits　of　trade。　The　advantage　arising　from　a　judicious　management　of　exchanges　was　the　origin　of　those　profits。　In　the　north；　a　producer　reckoned　two　measures　of　his　merchandize　equivalent　to　one　of　southern　merchandize。　In　the　south；　on　the　other　hand；　a　producer　reckoned　two　measures　of　his　merchandize　equivalent　to　one　of　northern　merchandize。　Between　two　equations　so　different　there　was　room　to　cover　all　the　expenses　of　transport；　all　the　profits　of　trade；　and　interest　for　all　the　money　advanced　to　carry　it　on。　In　fact；　at　the　sale　of　such　commodities　transported　by　commerce；　there　must　be　realized；　first　the　capital　repaid　to　the　manufacturer；　then　the　wages　of　the　sailors；　carriers；　clerks；　and　all　persons　employed　by　the　trader；　next　the　interest　of　all　those　funds　to　which　he　gives　movement；　and　lastly；　the　mercantile　profit。　　　　　Society　requires　something　more　than　wealth；　it　would　not　be　complete　if　it　contained　nothing　but　productive　labourers。　It　requires　administrators；　judges；　lawgivers；　men　employed　about　its　general　interests；　soldiers　and　sailors　to　defend　it。　No　one　of　those　classes　produces　any　thing；　their　labour　never　assumes　a　material　shape；　it　is　not　susceptible　of　accumulation。　Yet　without　their　assistance　all　the　wealth　arising　from　productive　labour　would　be　destroyed　by　violence；　and　work　would　cease；　if　the　labourer　could　not　calculate　on　peaceably　enjoying　its　fruits。　To　support　this　guardian　population；　a　part　must　be　deducted　from　the　funds　created　annually　by　labour。　But　as　the　service　done　to　the　community；　by　such　persons；　how　important　soever　it　be；　is　felt　by　no　one　in　particular；　it　cannot；　like　other　services；　be　an　object　of　exchange。　The　community　itself　was　under　the　necessity　of　paying　it　by　a　forced　contribution　from　the　revenues　of　all。　It　was　not　long；　indeed；　till　this　contribution　came　to　be　regulated　by　the　persons　destined　to　profit　from　it；　and　hence　the　contributors　were　loaded　without　measure；　civil　and　military　offices　were　multiplied　far　beyond　what　the　public　weal　required；　there　was　too　much　government；　too　much　defence　of　men；　who　were　forced　to　accept　those　services；　and　to　pay　them；　superfluous　or　even　burdensome　as　they　might　be；　and　the　rulers　of　nations；　established　to　protect　wealth；　were　often　the　main　authors　of　its　dilapidation。　　　　　Society　needs　that　kind　of　labour　which　produces　mental　enjoyments；　and　as　mental　enjoyments　are；　nearly　all；　immaterial；　the　objects　destined　to　satisfy　them　cannot　be　accumulated。　Religion；　science；　the　arts；　yield　happiness　to　man；　their　origin　is　labour；　their　end　enjoyment；　but　what　belongs　only　to　the　soul　is　not　capable　of　being　treasured　up。　If　a　nation；　however；　does　not　reckon　literature　and　the　arts　among　its　wealth；　it　may　reckon　literary　men　and　artists；　the　education　they　receive；　the　distinction　they　acquire；　accumulate　a　high　value　on　their　heads；　and　the　labour　which　they　execute　being　often　better　paid　than　that　of　the　most　skilled　workmen；　may　thus　contribute　to　the　spread　of　opulence。　　　　　Society；　in　the　last　place；　needs　those　kinds　of　labour；　the　object　of　which　is　to　take　care　of　the　persons；　not　the　fortunes　of　men。　Such　labour　may　be　of　the　most　elevated；　or　of　the　most　servile　kind：　according　as　it　requires　either　the　knowledge　of　nature　and　the　command　of　her　secrets；　like　the　physician's　labour；　or　merely　complaisance　and　obedience　to　the　will　of　a　master；　like　the　footman's　labour。　All　of　them　are　species　of　labour　intended　for　enjoyment；　and　differing　from　productive　labour；　only　in　so　far　as　their　effects　are　incapable　of　accumulation。　Hence；　though　they　add　to　the　well…being　of　a　state；　they　do　not　add　to　its　wealth；　and　such　as　are　employed　in　them　must　live　on　voluntary　contributions　drawn　from　the　revenue　formed　by　other　kinds　of　labour。

Chapter　3

Of　Territorial　Wealth


　　　　The　riches　proceeding　from　land　should　be　the　first　to　engage　the　attention　of　an　economist　or　a　legislator。　They　are　the　most　necessary　of　all；　because　it　is　from　the　ground　that　our　subsistence　is　derived；　because　they　furnish　the　materials　for　every　other　kind　of　labour；　and　lastly；　because；　in　preparation；　they　constantly　employ　the　half；　often　much　more　than　the　half；　of　all　the　nation。　The　class　of　people　who　cultivate　the　ground　are　particularly　valuable　for　bodily　qualities　fitted　to　make　excellent　soldiers；　and　for　mental　qualities　fitted　to　make　good　citizens。　The　happiness　of　a　rural　population　is　also　more　easily　provided　for　than　that　of　a　city　population；　the　progress　of　this　kind　of　wealth　is　more　easily　followed；　and　government　is　more　culpable　when　it　allows　agriculture　to　decay；　because　it　almost　always　lies　in　the　power　of　government　to　make　it　flourish。　　　　　The　annual　revenue　of　land；　or　the　annual　crop；　is　decomposed；　as　we　observed　above；　in　the　following　manner。　One　part　of　the　fruits；　produced　by　labour；　is　destined　to　pay　the　proprietor　for　the　assistance　which　the　earth　has　given　to　the　labour　of　men；　and　also　for　the　interest　of　all　the　capital　successively　employed　to　improve　the　soil。　This　portion　alone　is　called　the　net　revenue。　Another　part　of　the　fruits　replaces　what　has　been　consumed　in　executing　the　labour　to　which　the　crop　is　due；　the　seed；　and　all　the　cultivator's　advances。　Economists　call　this　portion　the　resumption。　Another　part　remains　for　a　profit　to　the　person　who　directed　the　labours　of　the　ground：　it　is　proportionate　to　his　industry　and　the　capital　advanced　by　him。　Government　likewise　takes　a　share　of　all　those　fruits；　and　by　various　imposts　diminishes　the　proprietor's　rent；　the　cultivator's　profit；　and　the　day…labourer's　wages；　in　order　to　form　a　revenue　for　another　class　of　persons。　Nor　do　the　fruits　distributed　among　the　workmen；　the　superintendent　of　the　labour；　and　the　proprietor；　entirely　remain　with　them　in　kind：　after　having　kept　a　portion　requisite　for　their　subsistence；　the　whole　then　equally　part　with　what　remains；　in　exchange　for　objects　produced　by　the　industry　of　towns；　and　it　is　by　means　of　this　exchange；　that　all　other　classes　of　the　nation　are　supplied　with　food。　　　　　The　net　revenue　of　territorial　produce　is　considered　to　be　that　portion　which　remains　with　proprietors　after　the　expenses　of　cultivation　have　been　paid。　Proprietors　frequently　imagine　that　a　system　of　cultivation　is　the　better；　the　higher　those　rents　are：　what　concerns　the　nation；　however；　what　should　engage　the　economist's　undivided　attention；　is　the　gross　produce；　or　the　total　amount　of　the　crop；　by　which　subsistence　is　provided　for　the　whole