political economy-第8部分

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　the　gross　produce；　or　the　total　amount　of　the　crop；　by　which　subsistence　is　provided　for　the　whole　nation；　and　the　comfort　of　all　classes　is　secured。　The　former　comprehends　but　the　revenue　of　the　rich　and　idle；　the　latter　farther　comprehends　the　revenue　of　all　such　as　labour；　or　cause　their　capital　to　labour。　　　　　But　a　gradual　increase　of　the　gross　produce　may　itself　be　the　consequence　of　a　state　of　suffering；　…　if　the　population；　growing　too　numerous；　can　no　longer　find　a　sufficient　recompense　in　the　wages　of　labour；　and　if；　struggling　without　protection　against　the　proprietors　of　land；　to　whom　limitation　of　number　gives　all　the　advantage　of　a　monopoly；　that　population　is　reduced　to　purchase；　by　excessive　labour；　so　small　an　augmentation　of　produce；　as　to　leave　it　constantly　depressed　by　want；　There　is　no　department　of　political　economy　which　ought　not　to　be　judged　in　its　relation　to　the　happiness　of　the　people　in　general；　and　a　system　of　social　order　is　always　bad　when　the　greater　part　of　the　population　suffers　under　it。　　　　　Commercial　wealth　is　augmented　and　distributed　by　exchange；　and　even　the　produce　of　the　ground；　so　soon　as　it　is　gathered　in；　belongs　likewise　to　commerce。　Territorial　wealth；　on　the　other　hand；　is　created　by　means　of　permanent　contacts。　With　regard　to　it；　the　economist's　attention　should　first　be　directed　to　the　progress　of　cultivation：　next　to　the　mode　in　which　the　produce　of　the　harvest　is　distributed　among　those　who　contribute　to　its　growth；　and　lastly；　to　the　nature　of　those　rights　which　belong　to　the　proprietors　of　land；　and　to　the　effects　resulting　from　an　alienation　of　their　property。　　　　　The　progress　of　social　order；　the　additional　security；　the　protection　which　government　holds　out　to　the　rights　of　all；　together　with　the　increase　of　population；　induce　the　cultivator　to　entrust　to　the　ground；　for　a　longer　or　shorter　period；　the　labour　which　constitutes　his　wealth。　In　the　timorous　condition　of　barbarianism；　he　will　not；　at　his　own　expense；　increase　the　value　of　an　immovable　possession；　which　perhaps　he　may　be　forced　to　abandon　at　a　moment's　warning。　But　in　the　security　of　complete　civilization；　he　regards　his　immovable　possessions　as　more　completely　safe　than　any　other　kind　of　wealth。　In　the　deserts　of　Arabia　and　Tartary；　in　the　savannahs　of　America；　before　civilization　has　begun；　in　the　pastures　of　the　Campagna　di　Roma；　or　the　Capitanata　de　la　Pouille；　after　it　has　ended；　men　are　contented　with　the　natural　fruits　of　the　ground；　with　grass　for　their　cattle　to　browse；　and　if　those　vast　deserts　yet　retain　any　value；　they　owe　it　less　to　the　slight　labour　by　which　the　proprietor　has　inclosed　them；　than　to　the　labour　by　which　the　herdsman　has　multiplied　the　oxen　and　sheep　which　feed　upon　them。　　　　　When　the　population　of　such　deserts　has　begun　to　increase；　and　an　agricultural　life　to　succeed　that　of　shepherds；　men　still　abstain　from　committing　to　the　ground　any　labour　whose　fruit　they　cannot　gather　till　after　many　years　have　elapsed。　The　husbandman　tills；　to　reap　in　the　following　season；　the　course　of　a　twelvemonth　is　sufficient　to　give　back　all　his　advances。　The　earth　which　he　has　sown；　far　from　gaining　a　durable　value　by　his　labour；　is；　for　a　time；　impoverished　by　the　fruits　it　has　born。　Instead　of　seeking　to　improve　it　by　more　judicious　cultivation；　he　gives　it　back　to　the　desert　for　repose；　and　next　year　tills　another　portion。　The　custom　of　fallowing；　a　remnant　of　this　half　savage　mode　of　agriculture；　continues　to　our　own　time；　in　more　than　three…fourths　of　Europe。　　　　　But　when　population　and　wealth　have　at　last　increased　so　as　to　make　every　kind　of　labour　easy；　and　when　social　order　inspires　security　enough　to　induce　the　husbandman　to　fix　his　labour　in　the　ground；　and　transmit　it　with　the　soil　to　his　descendants；　improvement　altogether　changes　the　appearance　of　the　earth。　Then　are　formed　those　plantations　of　gardens；　orchards；　vineyards；　the　enjoyment　of　which　is　destined　for　a　late　posterity；　then　are　dug　those　canals　for　draining　or　irrigation；　which　diffuse　fertility；　then　arise　upon　the　hills　those　hanging　terraces；　which　characterized　the　agriculture　of　ancient　Canaan。　A　quick　rotation　of　crops　of　a　different　nature　reanimates；　instead　of　exhausting；　the　strength　of　the　soil；　and　a　numerous　population　lives　on　a　space；　which；　according　to　the　primitive　system；　would　hardly　have　supported　a　few　scores　of　sheep。　　　　　The　trade　or　the　manufactures　of　a　country；　are　not　to　be　called　prosperous；　because　a　small　number　of　merchants　have　amassed　immense　fortunes　in　it。　On　the　contrary；　their　extraordinary　profits　almost　always　testify　against　the　general　prosperity　of　the　country。　So　likewise；　in　counties　abandoned　to　pasturage；　the　profits　realized　by　some　rich　proprietors　ought　not　to　be　regarded　as　indicating　a　judicious　system　of　agriculture。　Some　individuals；　it　is　true；　grow　rich；　but　the　nation；　which　the　land　should　maintain；　or　the　food　which　should　support　it；　are　no　where　to　be　found。　It　is　not　even　certain　that　the　net　produce　of　the　land　may　not　diminish；　in　proportion　as　its　agriculture　yields　a　more　abundant　produce；　and　a　greater　number　of　citizens　live　on　its　fruits；　just　as　we　see　the　net　produce　of　money；　or　its　interest；　diminish　in　proportion　as　a　country　becomes　more　commercial；　and　contains　more　capital。　　　　　The　first　proprietors　of　land　were　doubtless　themselves　cultivators；　and　executed　all　kinds　of　field　labour；　with　their　children　and　servants。　To　these；　in　ancient　times；　were　added　slaves；　the　continual　state　of　war；　which　exists　among　semi…barbarous　societies；　having　introduced　slavery　at　the　remotest　era。　The　stronger　found　it　more　convenient　to　procure　workmen　by　the　abuse　of　victory　than　by　bargain。　Yet　so　long　as　the　head　of　each　family　laboured　along　with　his　children　and　slaves；　the　condition　of　the　latter　was　less　wretched；　the　master　felt　himself　to　be　of　the　same　nature　with　his　servant；　he　experienced　the　same　wants　and　the　same　fatigue；　he　desired　the　same　pleasures；　and　knew；　by　experience；　that　he　would　obtain　little　work　from　a　man　whom　he　fed　badly。　Such　was　the　patriarchal　mode　of　cultivation；　that　of　the　golden　days　of　Italy　and　Greece；　such　is　that　of　free　America；　such　appears　to　be　that　of　Africa；　in　its　interior；　and　such；　finally；　but　without　slavery；　and　therefore　with　still　more　domestic　comfort；　is　that　of　Switzerland；　where　the　peasant　proprietor　is　happier　than　in　any　other　country　of　the　world。　　　　　Among　the　states　of　antiquity；　the　farms　under　cultivation　were　small；　and　the　number　of　freemen　labouring　in　the　fields；　always　greatly　surpassed　that　of　slaves。　The　former　had　a　full　enjoyment　of　their　persons　and　the　fruits　of　their　labour；　the　latter；　degraded　rather　than　unhappy；　like　the　ox；　man's　companion；　which　interest　teaches　him　to　spare；　seldom　experienced　suffering；　want　still　more　rarely。　The　head　of　each　family　alone　receiving　the　total　crop；　did　not　distinguish　the　rent　from　the　profit　or　the　wages；　with　the　excess　of　what　he　wanted　for　food；　he　procured　the　produce　of　the　town　in　exchange；　and　this　excess　supported　all　other　classes　of　the　nation。　　　　　But　the　progress　of　wealth；　of　luxury；　and　idleness；　in　all　the　states　of　antiquity；　substituted　the　servile　for　the　patriarchal　mode　of　cultivation。　The　population　lost　much　in　happiness　and　number　by　this　change；　the　earth　gained　little　in　productiveness。　The　Roman　proprietors　extending　their　patrimonies　by　the　confiscated　territories　of　vanquished　states；　the　Greeks　by　wealth　acquired　from　trade；first　abandoned　manual　labour；　and　soon　afterwards；　despised　it。　Fixing　their　residence　in　towns；　they　entrusted　the　management　of　their　estates　to　stewards　and　inspectors　of　slaves；　and　from　that　period；　the　condition　of　most　part　of　the　country　population　became　intolerable。　Labour；　which　once　been　a　point　of　communion　betwixt　the　two　ranks　of　society；　now　became　a　barrier　of　separation；　contempt　and　severity　succeeded　to　affectionate　care；　punishments　were　multiplied　as　they　came　to　be　inflicted　by　inferiors；　and　as　the　death　of　one　or　several　slaves　did　not　lessen　the　steward's　wealth。　Slaves　who　were　ill…fed；　ill…teated；　ill…recompensed；　could　not　fail　to　lose　all　interest　in　their　master's　affairs；　and　almost　all　understanding。　Far　from　attending　to　their　business　with　affection；　they　felt　a　secret　joy　every　time　they　saw　their　oppressors'　wealth　diminished；　or　his　hopes　deceived。　The　study　of　science；　accompanied　with　habits　of　observation；　certainly　advanced　the　theory　of　agriculture：　but　its　practice；　at　the　same　time；　rapidly　declined；　a　fact；　which　all　the　agricultural　writers　of　antiquity　lament。　The　cultivation　of　land　was　entirely　divested　of　all　that　intelligence；　affection；　and　zeal；　which　had　once　hastened　its　success。　The　revenues　were　smaller；　the　expenses　greater；　and　from　that　period；　it　became　an　object　to　save　labour；　more　than　to　augment　its　produce。　Slaves；　after　having　driven　every　free　cultivator　from　the　fields；　were　themselves　rapidly　decreasing　in　number。　During　the　decline　of　the　Roman　empire；　the　population　of　Italy　was　not　less　reduced　than　that　of　the　Agro　Romano　is　in　our　days；　while；　at　the　same　time；　it　had　sunk　into　the　that　degree　of　wretchedness　and　penury。　The　cultivation　of　the　colonies　situated　on　the　Mexican　Gulf　was　founded；　in　like　manner；　on　the　baneful　system　of　slavery。　it　has；　in　like　manner；　consumed　the　population；　debased　the　human　species；　and　deteriorated　the　system　of　agriculture。　The　negro　trade　has　of　course　filled　up　those　voids；　which　the　barbarity　of　planters　annually　produced　in　the　agricultural　population；　and　doubtless；　under　a　system　of　culture；　such　that　the　man　who　labours　is　constantly　reduced　below　the　necessaries　of　life；　and　the　man　who　does　not　labour　keeps　all　for　himself；　the　net　produce　has　always　been　considerable；　but　the　gross　produce；　with　which　alone　the　nation　is　concerned；　has　uniformly　been　inferior　to　what　would　have　arisen　from　any　other　system　of　cultivation；　whilst　the　condition　of　more　than　seven…eighths　of　the　population　has　continued　to　be　miserable。　　　　　The　invasions　of　the　Roman　empire；　by　the　barbarians；　introduced　new　manners；　and；　with　them；　new　systems　of　cultivation。　The　conqueror；　who　had　now　become　proprietor