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of　the　nation？　No；　the　theory　has　till　now　not　effected　any



thorough　reform；　and　further　will　never　effect　any；　so　long　as　it



stands　opposed　to　the　very　nature　of　things。　But　it　can　and　must



effect　great　reforms　as　soon　as　it　consents　to　base　itself　on　that



nature。



　　　　It　will　first　of　all　establish　a　benefit　extending　to　all



nations；　to　the　prosperity　and　progress　of　the　whole　human　race；　if



it　shows　that　the　prevention　of　free　trade　in　natural　products　and



raw　materials　causes　to　the　nation　itself　which　prevents　it　the



greatest　disadvantage；　and　that　the　system　of　protection　can　be



justified　solely　and　only　for　the　purpose　of　the　industrial



development　of　the　nation。　It　may　then；　by　thus　basing　the　system



of　protection　as　regards　manufactures　on　correct　principles；　induce



nations　which　at　present　adopt　a　rigidly　prohibitive　system；　as



e。g。　the　French；　to　give　up　the　prohibitive　system　by　degrees。　The



manufacturers　will　not　oppose　such　a　change　as　soon　as　they　become



convinced　that　the　theorists；　very　far　from　planning　the　ruin　of



existing　manufactures；　consider　their　preservation　and　their



further　development　as　the　basis　of　every　sensible　commercial



policy。



　　　　If　the　theory　will　teach　the　Germans；　that　they　can　further



their　manufacturing　power　advantageously　only　by　protective　duties



previously　fixed；　and　on　a　gradually　increasing　scale　at　first；　but



afterwards　gradually　diminishing；　and　that　under　all　circumstances



partial　but　carefully　limited　foreign　competition　is　really



beneficial　to　their　own　manufacturing　progress；　it　will　render　far



better　service　in　the　end　to　the　cause　of　free　trade　than　if　it



simply　helps　to　strangle　German　industry。



　　　　The　theory　must　not　expect　from　the　United　States　of　North



America　that　they　are　to　sacrifice　to　free　competition　from　the



foreigner；　those　manufactures　in　which　they　are　protected　by　cheap



raw　materials　and　provisions；　and　by　machine　power。　It　will；



however；　meet　no　contradiction　if　it　maintains　that　the　United



States；　as　long　as　wages　are　disproportionately　higher　there　than



in　the　older　civilised　States；　can　best　promote　the　development　of



their　productive　powers；　their　civilisation　and　political　power；　by



allowing　the　free　import　as　much　as　possible　of　those　manufactured



articles　in　the　cost　of　which　wages　are　a　principal　element；



provided　that　other　countries　admit　their　agricultural　products　and



raw　materials。



　　　　The　theory　of　free　trade　will　then　find　admission　into　Spain；



Portugal；　Naples；　Turkey　Egypt；　and　all　barbarous　and



half…civilised　or　hot　countries。　In　such　countries　as　these　the



foolish　idea　will　not　be　held　any　longer；　of　wanting　to　establish



（in　their　present　state　of　culture）　a　manufacturing　power　of　their



own　by　means　of　the　system　of　protection。



　　　　England　will　then　give　up　the　idea　that　she　is　designed　to



monopolise　the　manufacturing　power　of　the　whole　world。　She　will　no



longer　require　that　France；　Germany；　and　North　America　should



sacrifice　their　own　manufactures　in　consideration　of　the　concession



by　England　of　permitting　the　import；　duty　free；　of　agricultural



products　and　raw　materials。　She　will　recognise　the　legitimacy　of



protective　systems　in　those　nations；　although　she　will　herself　more



and　more　favour　free　trade；　the　theory　having　taught　her　that　a



nation　which　has　already　attained　manufacturing　supremacy；　can　only



protect　its　own　manufacturers　and　merchants　against　retrogression



and　indolence；　by　the　free　importation　of　means　of　subsistence　and



raw　materials；　and　by　the　competition　of　foreign　manufactured



goods。



　　　　England　will　then　follow　a　practice　totally　opposed　to　her



present　commercial　policy；　instead　of　lecturing；　as　hitherto；　other



nations　to　adopt　free　trade；　whilst　herself　maintaining　the



strictest　prohibitory　system；　she　will　herself　permit　competition



without　regard　to　the　foreign　systems　of　protection。　She　will　defer



her　hopes　of　the　general　adoption　of　free　trade；　until　other



nations　have　no　longer　to　fear　that　the　ruin　of　their　manufactories



would　result　from　free　competition。



　　　　Meanwhile；　and　until　that　period　has　arrived；　England　will　be



able　to　compensate　herself　for　the　losses　which　she　suffers　from



foreign　systems　of　protection；　in　respect　of　her　export　trade　in



manufactures　of　every…day　use；　by　a　greater　export　of　goods　of



finer　quality；　and　by　opening；　establishing；　and　cultivating　new



markets　for　her　manufactures。



　　　　She　will　endeavour　to　bring　about　peace　in　Spain；　in　the　East；



and　in　the　states　of　Central　and　South　America；　and　will　use　her



influence　in　all　the　barbarous　and　half…civilised　countries　of



Central　and　South　America；　of　Asia　and　Africa；　in　order　that



powerful　and　civilised　governments　may　be　formed　in　them；　that



security　of　persons　and　of　property　may　be　introduced　into　them；



for　the　construction　in　them　of　roads　and　canals；　the　promotion　of



education　and　civilisation；　morality　and　industry；　and　for　rooting



out　fanaticism；　superstition；　and　idleness。　If　concurrently　with



these　endeavours　she　abolishes　her　restrictions　on　the　importation



of　provisions　and　raw　materials；　she　will　increase　her　exports　of



manufactures　immensely；　and　much　more　successfully　than　by



continually　speculating　on　the　ruin　of　the　Continental



manufactories。



　　　　If；　however；　these　operations　of　civilisation　on　the　part　of



England　are　to　be　successful　as　respects　barbarous　and



half…civilised　nations；　she　must　not　act　in　an　exclusive　manner；



she　must　not　endeavour　by　special　commercial　privileges；　such　as；



for　instance；　she　has　managed　to　procure　in　Brazil；　to　monopolise



these　markets；　and　to　shut　out　other　nations　from　them。　Such　a



policy　as　the　latter　will　always　excite　the　just　jealousy　of　other



nations；　and　give　them　a　motive　for　opposing　the　exertions　of



England。　It　is　evident　that　this　selfish　policy　is　the　cause　why



the　influence　of　the　civilised　powers　on　the　civilisation　of　such



countries　as　we　have　specified　has　been　hitherto　so　unimportant。



England　ought　therefore　to　introduce　into　the　law　of　nations　the



maxim：　that　in　all　such　countries　the　commerce　of　all　manufacturing



nations　should　have　equal　rights。　England　would　thereby　not　merely



secure　the　aid　of　all　civilised　powers　in　her　own　work　of



civilisation；　but　also　no　disadvantage　would　result　to　her　own



commerce　if　similar　experiments　of　civilisation　were　undertaken　by



other　manufacturing　nations。　On　account　of　their　superiority　in　all



branches　of　manufacture　and　commerce；　the　English　would　everywhere



always　obtain　the　greatest　share　of　the　exports　to　such　markets。



　　　　The　striving　and　ceaseless　intrigues　of　the　English　against　the



manufactures　of　other　nations　might　still　be　justified；　if　a



world…manufacturing　monopoly　were　indispensable　for　the　prosperity



of　England；　if　it　could　not　be　proved　by　evidence　that　the　nations



which　aspire；　after　the　example　of　England；　to　attain　to　a　large



manufacturing　power　can　very　well　attain　their　object　without　the



humiliation　of　England；　that　England　need　not　become　poorer　than



she　is　because　others　become　richer；　and　that　nature　offers



sufficient　means　for　the　creation　in　Germany；　France；　and　North



America　（without　detriment　to　the　prosperity　of　England）；　of　a



manufacturing　power　equal　to　that　of　the　English。



　　　　With　regard　to　this；　it　must　further　be　remarked；　that　every



nation　which　gains　entire　possession　of　its　own　home　market　for



manufactures；　gains　in　the　course　of　time；　by　its　home　production



and　consumption　of　manufactured　goods；　infinitely　more　than　the



nation　which　has　hitherto　provided　the　former　with　manufactured



goods　loses　by　being　excluded；　because　a　nation　which　manufactures



for　itself；　and　which　is　perfectly　developed　in　its　economical



conditions；　becomes　more　than　proportionately　richer　and　more



populous；　consequently　is　enabled　to　consume　infinitely　more



fabrics；　than　it　could　import　while　depending　on　a　foreign



manufacturing　nation　for　its　supply。



　　　　As　respects　the　exportation　of　manufactured　goods；　however；　the



countries　of　the　temperate　zone　（being　specially　fitted　By　nature



for　manufacturing）　have　a　special　field　for　their　efforts　in



supplying　the　consumption　of　the　countries　of　the　torrid　zone；



which　latter　provide　the　former　with　colonial　produce　in　exchange



for　their　manufactured　goods。　The　consumption　of　manufactured　goods



by　the　countries　of　the　torrid　zone；　however；　is　partly　determined



by　their　ability　to　produce　a　surplus　of　the　articles　peculiar　to



their　climate；　and　partly　according　to　the　proportion　in　which　the



countries　of　the　temperate　zone　augment　their　demand　for　the



products　of　the　torrid　zone。



　　　　If　it　can　now　be　proved；　that　in　the　course　of　time　the



countries　of　the　torrid　zone　can　produce　sugar；　rice；　cotton；



coffee；　&c。　to　an　extent　five　or　ten　times　greater　than　hitherto；



and　that　the　countries　of　the　temperate　zone　can　consume　five　or



ten　times　more　of　these　articles　than　hitherto；　it　will　be



simultaneously　proved　that　the　countries　of　the　temperate　zone　can



increase　their　exportation　of　manufactured　goods　to　the　countries



of　the　torrid　zone　by　from　five　to　ten　times　their　present　total



quantity。



　　　　The　capability　of　the　Continental　nations　to　increase　their



consumption　of　colonial　produce　thus　considerably；　is　indicated　by



the　increase　of　consumption　in　Engla