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is　evident　that　canals；　railways；　and　steam　navigation　are　called



into　existence　only　by　means　of　the　manufacturing　power；　and　can



only　by　means　of　it　be　extended　over　the　whole　surface　of　the



country。　In　the　mere　agricultural　State；　where　everybody　produces



for　himself　the　greater　part　of　what　he　requires；　and　consumes



himself　the　greater　part　of　what　he　produces；　where　the　individuals



among　themselves　can　only　carry　on　a　small　amount　of　goods　and



passenger　traffic；　it　is　impossible　that　a　sufficiently　large



traffic　in　either　goods　or　passengers　can　take　place　to　defray　the



costs　of　the　erection　and　maintenance　of　the　machinery　of



transport。



　　　　New　inventions　and　improvements　in　the　mere　agricultural　State



are　of　but　little　value。　Those　who　occupy　themselves　with　such



things　in　such　a　State　fall　themselves；　as　a　rule；　a　sacrifice　to



their　investigations　and　endeavours；　while　in　the　manufacturing



State　there　is　no　path　which　leads　more　rapidly　to　wealth　and



position　than　that　of　invention　and　discovery。　Thus；　in　the



manufacturing　State　genius　is　valued　and　rewarded　more　highly　than



skill；　and　skill　more　highly　than　mere　physical　force。　In　the



agricultural　State；　however；　excepting　in　the　public　service；　the



reverse　is　almost　the　rule。



　　　　As；　however；　manufactures　operate　beneficially　on　the



development　of　the　mental　powers　of　the　nation；　so　also　do　they　act



on　the　development　of　the　physical　power　of　labour；　by　affording　to



the　labourers　means　of　enjoyment；　inducements　to　exert　their



powers；　and　opportunities　for　making　use　of　them。　It　is　an



undisputed　observation；　that　in　flourishing　manufacturing　States



the　workman；　irrespective　of　the　aid　which　he　obtains　from　better



machinery　and　tools；　accomplishes　a　far　larger　day's　work　than　in



mere　agricultural　countries。



　　　　Moreover；　the　circumstance　that　in　manufacturing　States　the



value　of　time　is　recognised　much　more　than　in　agricultural　States；



affords　proof　of　the　higher　standing　in　the　former　of　the　power　of



labour。　The　degree　of　civilisation　of　a　nation　and　the　value　of　its



labour　power　cannot　be　estimated　more　accurately　than　according　to



the　degree　of　the　value　which　it　attributes　to　time。　The　savage



lies　for　days　idle　in　his　hut。　How　can　the　shepherd　learn　to



estimate　the　value　of　time；　to　whom　time　is　simply　a　burden　which



his　pastoral　pipe　or　sleep　alone　makes　tolerable　to　him？　How　can　a



slave；　a　serf；　a　peasant；　subject　to　tributes　of　forced　labour；



learn　to　value　time；　he　to　whom　labour　is　penalty；　and　idleness



gain？　Nations　only　arrive　at　the　recognition　of　the　value　of　time



through　industry。　At　present　time　gained　brings　gain　of　profit；



loss　of　time；　loss　of　profit。　The　zeal　of　the　manufacturer　to



utilise　his　time　in　the　highest　possible　degree　imparts　itself　to



the　agriculturist。　Through　the　increased　demand　for　agricultural



products　caused　by　manufactures；　the　rent　and　therefore　the　value



of　land　is　raised；　larger　capital　is　employed　in　cultivating　it；



profits　are　increased；　a　larger　produce　must　be　obtained　from　the



soil　in　order　to　be　able　to　provide　for　the　increased　rent　and



interest　of　capital；　and　for　the　increased　consumption。　One　is　in



a　position　to　offer　higher　wages；　but　one　also　requires　more　work



to　be　done。　The　workman　begins　to　feel　that　he　possesses　in　his



bodily　powers；　and　in　the　skill　with　which　he　uses　them；　the　means



of　improving　his　condition。　He　begins　to　comprehend　why　the



Englishman　says；　'Time　is　money。'



　　　　Owing　to　the　isolation　in　which　the　agriculturist　lives；　and　to



his　limited　education；　he　is　but　little　capable　of　adding　anything



to　general　civilisation　or　learning　to　estimate　the　value　of



political　institutions；　and　much　less　still　to　take　an　active　part



in　the　administration　of　public　affairs　and　of　justice；　or　to



defend　his　liberty　and　rights。　Hence　he　is　mostly　in　a　state　of



dependence　on　the　landed　proprietor。　Everywhere　merely　agricultural



nations　have　lived　in　slavery；　or　oppressed　by　despotism；



feudalism；　or　priestcraft。　The　mere　exclusive　possession　of　the



soil　gave　the　despot；　the　oligarchy；　or　the　priestly　caste　a　power



over　the　mass　of　the　agricultural　population；　of　which　the　latter



could　not　rid　themselves　of　their　own　accord。



　　　　Under　the　powerful　influence　of　habit；　everywhere　among　merely



agricultural　nations　has　the　yoke　which　brute　force　or　superstition



and　priestcraft　imposed　upon　them　so　grown　into　their　very　flesh；



that　they　come　to　regard　it　as　a　necessary　constituent　of　their　own



body；　as　a　condition　of　their　very　existence。



　　　　On　the　other　hand；　the　separation　and　variety　of　the　operations



of　business；　and　the　confederation　of　the　productive　powers；　press



with　irresistible　force　the　various　manufacturers　towards　one



another。　Friction　produces　sparks　of　the　mind；　as　well　as　those　of



natural　fire。　Mental　friction；　however；　only　exists　where　people



live　together　closely；　where　frequent　contact　in　commercial；



scientific；　social；　civil；　and　political　matters　exists；　where



there　is　large　interchange　both　of　goods　and　ideas。　The　more　men



live　together　in　one　and　the　same　place；　the　more　every　One　of



these　men　depends　in　his　business　on　the　co…operation　of　all



others；　the　more　the　business　of　every　one　of　these　individuals



requires　knowledge；　circumspection；　education；　and　the　less　that



obstinacy；　lawlessness；　oppression　and　arrogant　opposition　to



justice　interfere　with　the　exertions　of　all　these　individuals　and



with　the　objects　at　which　they　aim；　so　much　the　more　perfect　will



the　civil　institutions　be　found；　so　much　larger　will　be　the　degree



of　liberty　enjoyed；　so　much　more　opportunity　will　be　given　for



self…improvement　and　for　co…operation　in　the　improvement　of　others。



Therefore　liberty　and　civilisation　have　everywhere　and　at　all　times



emanated　from　towns；　in　ancient　times　in　Greece　and　Italy；　in　the



Middle　Ages　in　Italy；　Germany；　belgium；　and　Holland；　later　on　in



England；　and　still　more　recently　in　North　America　and　France。



　　　　But　there　are　two　kinds　of　towns；　one　of　which　we　may　term　the



productive；　the　other　the　consuming　kind。　There　are　towns　which



work　up　raw　materials；　and　pay　the　country　districts　for　these；　as



well　as　for　the　means　of　subsistence　which　they　require；　by　means



of　manufactured　goods。　These　are　the　manufacturing　towns；　the



productive　ones。　The　more　that　these　prosper；　the　more　the



agriculture　of　the　country　prospers；　and　the　more　powers　that



agriculture　unfolds；　so　much　the　greater　do　those　manufacturing



towns　become。　But　there　are　also　towns　where　those　live　who　simply



consume　the　rents　of　the　land。　In　all　countries　which　are　civilised



to　some　extent；　a　large　portion　of　the　national　income　is　consumed



as　rent　in　the　towns。　It　would　be　false；　however；　were　we　to



maintain　as　a　general　principle　that　this　consumption　is　injurious



to　production；　or　does　not　tend　to　promote　it。　For　the　possibility



of　securing　to　oneself　an　independent　life　by　the　acquisition　of



rents；　is　a　powerful　stimulus　to　economy　and　to　the　utilisation　of



savings　in　agriculture　and　in　agricultural　improvements。　Moreover



the　man　who　lives　on　rents；　stimulated　by　the　inclination　to



distinguish　himself　before　his　fellow…citizens；　supported　by　his



education　and　his　independent　position；　will　promote　civilisation；



the　efficiency　of　public　institutions；　of　State　administration；



science　and　art。　But　the　degree　in　which　rent　influences　in　this



manner　the　industry；　prosperity；　and　civilisation　of　the　nation



will　always　depend　on　the　degree　of　liberty　which　that　nation　has



already　obtained。　That　inclination　to　become　useful　to　the



commonwealth　by　voluntary　activity；　and　to　distinguish　oneself



before　one's　fellow…citizens；　will　only　develop　itself　in　countries



where　this　activity　leads　to　public　recognition；　to　public　esteem；



and　to　offices　of　honour；　but　not　in　countries　where　every　attempt



to　gain　public　esteem　and　every　manifestation　of　independence　is



regarded　by　the　ruling　power　with　a　jealous　eye。　In　such　countries



the　man　of　independent　income　will　give　himself　up　to　debauchery



and　idleness；　and　because　in　this　manner　he　brings　useful　industry



into　contempt；　and　injures　the　morality　as　well　as　the　industrious



impulse　of　the　nation；　he　will　radically　imperil　the　nation's



productive　power。　Even　if　under　such　conditions　the　manufactures　of



towns　are　to　some　extent　promoted　by　the　consumption　of　the



rentier；　such　manufactures　are　nevertheless　to　be　regarded　as



barren　and　unsound　fruits；　and　especially　they　will　aid　very　little



in　promoting　the　civilisation；　prosperity；　and　liberty　of　the



nation。　Inasmuch　as　a　sound　manufacturing　industry　especially　tends



to　produce　liberty　and　civilisation；　it　may　also　be　said　that



through　it　rent　itself　is　redeemed　from　forming　a　fund　for



idleness；　debauchery；　and　immorality；　and　is　converted　into　a　fund



for　promoting　mental　culture；　and　consequently　that　through　it　the



merely　consuming　towns　are　changed　into　productive　towns。　Another



element　by　which　the　consuming　towns　are　supported　is；　the



consumption　of　the　public　servants　and　of　the　State　administration。



These　also　may　occasion　some　apparent　prosperity　in　a　town；　but



whether　such　consumption　especially　promotes　or　is　injurious　to　the



productive　power；　prosperity　and　institutions　of　the　nation；



depends　altogether　on　the　question　how　far　the　functions