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of　animals　and　vegetables；　most　of　the　new　discoveries　which　are



made　with　respect　to　them；　as　well　as　all　other　progress；



inventions；　and　discoveries；　are　chiefly　calculated　to　benefit　the



countries　of　the　temperate　zone；　and　of　those　most　of　all；　the



manufacturing　countries。







NOTES：







1。　Esprit　des　Lois；　Livre　xx。　chap。　xxiii。







2。　According　to　Chardin；　the　Guebres；　an　unmixed　tribe　of　the　old



Persians；　are　an　ugly；　deformed；　and　clumsy　race；　like　all　nations



of　Mongol　descent；　while　the　Persian　nobility；　which　for　centuries



has　intermarried　with　Georgian　and　Circassian　women；　is



distinguished　for　beauty　and　strength。　Dr　Pritchard　remarks　that



the　unmixed　Celts　of　the　Scottish　highlands　are　far　behind　the



Scottish　Lowlanders　（descendants　of　Saxons　and　Celts）　in　height；



bodily　power；　and　fine　figure。　Pallas　makes　similar　observations



respecting　the　descendants　of　the　Russians　and　Tartars　in



comparison　with　the　unmixed　tribes　to　which　they　are　related。　Azara



affirms　that　the　descendants　of　the　Spaniards　and　the　natives　of



Paraguay　are　a　much　more　handsome　and　powerful　race　of　men　than



their　ancestors　on　both　sides。　The　advantages　of　the　crossing　of



race　are　not　only　apparent　in　the　mixing　of　different　nations；　but



also　in　the　mixing　of　different　family　stocks　in　one　and　the　same



nation。　Thus　the　Creole　negroes　far　surpass　those　negroes　who　have



sprung　from　unmixed　tribes；　and　who　have　come　direct　from　Africa　to



America；　in　mental　gifts　as　well　as　in　bodily　power。　The



Caribbeans；　the　only　Indian　race　which　chooses　regularly　its　women



From　neighbouring　tribes；　are　in　every　respect　superior　to　all



other　American　tribes。　If　this　is　a　law　of　nature；　the　rise　and



progress　which　the　cities　of　the　Middle　Ages　displayed　shortly



after　their　foundation；　as　well　as　the　energy　and　fine　bodily



appearance　of　the　American　people；　are　hence　partly　explained。







Chapter　19







The　Manufacturing　Power　and　the　Instrumental　Powers　（Material



Capital）　Of　the　Nation







　　　　The　nation　derives　its　productive　power　from　the　mental　and



physical　powers　of　the　individuals；　from　their　social；　municipal；



and　political　conditions　and　institutions；　from　the　natural



resources　placed　at　its　disposal；　or　from　the　instruments　it



possesses　as　the　material　products　of　former　mental　and　bodily



exertions　（material；　agricultural；　manufacturing；　and　commercial



capital）。　In　the　last　two　chapters　we　have　dealt　with　the　influence



of　manufactures　on　the　three　first…named　sources　of　the　national



productive　powers；　the　present　and　the　following　chapter　are



devoted　to　the　demonstration　of　its　influence　on　the　one　last



named。



　　　　That　which　we　understand　by　the　term　'instrumental　powers'　is



called　'capital'　by　the　school。　It　matters　but　little　by　what　word



an　object　is　signified；　but　it　matters　very　much　（especially　with



regard　to　scientific　investigations）　that　the　word　selected　should



always　indicate　one　and　the　same　object；　and　never　more　or　less。　As



often；　therefore；　as　different　branches　of　a　matter　are　discussed；



the　necessity　for　a　distinction　arises。　The　school　now　understands



by　the　term　'capital'　not　merely　the　material；　but　also　all　mental



and　social　means　of　and　aids　to　production。　It　clearly　ought；



therefore；　to　specify　wherever　it　speaks　of　capital；　whether　the



material　capital；　the　material　instruments　of　production；　or　the



mental　capital；　the　moral　and　physical　powers　which　are　inherent　in



individuals；　or　which　individuals　derive　from　social；　municipal；



and　political　conditions；　are　meant。　The　omission　of　this



distinction；　where　it　ought　to　be　drawn；　must　necessarily　lead　to



false　reasoning；　or　else　serve　to　conceal　false　reasoning。



Meanwhile；　however；　as　it　is　not　so　much　our　business　to　found　a



new　nomenclature　as　to　expose　the　errors　committed　under　the　cover



of　an　inexact　and　inadequate　nomenclature；　we　will　adopt　the　term



'capital；'　but　distinguish　between　mental　and　material　capital；



between　material；　agricultural；　manufacturing；　and　commercial



capital；　between　private　and　national　capital。



　　　　Adam　Smith　（by　means　of　the　common　expression；　capital）　urges



the　following　argument　against　the　protective　commercial　policy



which　is　adopted　to　the　present　day　by　all　his　followers：　'A



country　can　indeed　by　means　of　such　（protective）　regulations



produce　a　special　description　of　manufactures　sooner　than　without



them；　and　this　special　kind　of　manufactures　will　be　able　to　yield



after　some　time　as　cheap　or　still　cheaper　productions　than　the



foreign　country。　But　although　in　this　manner　we　can　succeed　in



directing　national　industry　sooner　into　those　channels　into　which



it　would　later　have　flowed　of　its　own　accord；　it　does　not　in　the



least　follow　that　the　total　amount　of　industry　or　of　the　incomes　of



the　community　can　be　increased　by　means　of　such　measures。　The



industry　of　the　community　can　only　be　augmented　in　proportion　as



its　capital　increases；　and　the　capital　of　the　community　can　only



increase　in　accordance　with　the　savings　which　it　gradually　makes



from　its　income。　Now；　the　immediate　effect　of　these　measures　is　to



decrease　the　income　of　the　community。　But　it　is　certain　that　that



which　decreases　that　income　cannot　increase　the　capital　more



quickly　than　it　would　have　been　increased　by　itself；　if　it；　as　well



as　industry；　had　been　left　free。'（1*）



　　　　As　a　proof　of　this　argument；　the　founder　of　the　school　adduces



the　well…known　example；　refuted　by　us　in　the　previous　chapter；　how



foolish　it　would　be　to　plant　the　vine　in　Scotland。



　　　　In　the　same　chapter　he　states；　the　annual　income　of　the



community　is　nothing　else　but　the　value　in　exchange　of　those



objects　which　the　national　industry　produces　annually。



　　　　In　the　above…named　argument　lies　the　chief　proof　of　the　school



against　the　protective　commercial　policy。　It　admits　that　by



measures　of　protection　manufactories　can　be　established　and　enabled



to　produce　manufactured　goods　as　cheap　or　even　cheaper　than　they



can　be　obtained　from　abroad；　but　it　maintains　that　the　immediate



effect　of　these　measures　is　to　decrease　the　income　of　the　community



（the　value　in　exchange　of　those　things　which　the　national　industry



produces　annually）。　It　thereby　weakens　its　power　of　acquiring



capital；　for　capital　is　formed　by　the　savings　which　the　nation



makes　out　of　its　annual　income；　the　total　of　the　capital；　however；



determines　the　total　of　the　national　industry；　and　the　latter　can



only　increase　in　proportion　to　the　former。　It　therefore　weakens　its



industry　by　means　of　those　measures　　by　producing　an　industry



which；　in　the　nature　of　things；　if　they　had　been　left　to　their　own



free　course　would　have　originated　of　its　own　accord。



　　　　It　is　firstly　to　be　remarked　in　opposition　to　this　reasoning；



that　Adam　Smith　has　merely　taken　the　word　capital　in　that　sense　in



which　it　is　necessarily　taken　by　rentiers　or　merchants　in　their



book…keeping　and　their　balance…sheets；　namely；　as　the　grand　total



of　their　values　of　exchange　in　contradistinction　to　the　income



accruing　therefrom。



　　　　He　has　forgotten　that　he　himself　includes　（in　his　definition　of



capital）　the　mental　and　bodily　abilities　of　the　producers　under



this　term。



　　　　He　wrongly　maintains　that　the　revenues　of　the　nation　are



dependent　only　on　the　sum　of　its　material　capital。　His　own　work；　on



the　contrary　contains　a　thousand　proofs　that　these　revenues　are



chiefly　conditional　on　the　sum　of　its　mental　and　bodily　powers；　and



on　the　degree　to　which　they　are　perfected；　in　social　and　political



respects　（especially　by　means　of　more　perfect　division　of　labour



and　confederation　of　the　national　productive　powers）；　and　that



although　measures　of　protection　require　sacrifices　of　material



goods　for　a　time；　these　sacrifices　are　made　good　a　hundred…fold　in



powers；　in　the　ability　to　acquire　values　of　exchange；　and　are



consequently　merely　reproductive　outlay　by　the　nation。



　　　　He　has　forgotten　that　the　ability　of　the　whole　nation　to



increase　the　sum　of　its　material　capital　consists　mainly　in　the



possibility　of　converting　unused　natural　powers　into　material



capital；　into　valuable　and　income…producing　instruments；　and　that



in　the　case　of　the　merely　agricultural　nation　a　mass　of　natural



powers　lies　idle　or　dead　which　can　bequickened　into　activity　only



by　manufactures。　He　has　not　considered　the　influence　of



manufactures　on　the　internal　and　external　commerce；　on　the



civilisation　and　power　of　the　nation；　and　on　the　maintenance　of　its



independence；　as　well　as　on　the　capability　arising　from　these　of



gaining　material　wealth。



　　　　He　has　e。g。　not　taken　into　consideration　what　a　mass　of　capital



the　English　have　obtained　by　means　of　colonisation　（Martin



estimates　the　amount　of　this　at　more　than　two　and　a　half　milliards



of　pounds　sterling）。



　　　　He；　who　nevertheless　elsewhere　proves　so　clearly　that　the



capital　employed　in　intermediate　commerce　is　not　to　be　regarded　as



belonging　to　any　given　nation；　so　long　as　it　is　not　equally



embodied　in　that　nation's　land；　has　here　not　duly　considered　that



the　nationalisation　of　such　capital　is　most　effectually　realised　by



favouring　the　nation's　inland　manufactures。



　　　　He　has　not　taken　into　account；　that　by　the　policy　of　favouring



native　manufacture　a　mass　of　foreign　capital；　mental　as　well　as



material；　is　attracted　into　the　country。