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population； and with the increase of mental and material capital。
By comparing the mere agricultural nation with the agricultural；
manufacturing； and commercial nation； it will be seen that in the
latter twenty times more people live on rents than in the former。
According to Marshal's statistics of Great britain； for example； in
England and Scotland 16；537；398 human beings were living in 1831；
among whom were 1；116；398 rentiers。 We could scarcely find in
Poland on an equal space of land the twentieth part of this number。
If we descend from generals to particulars and investigate the
origin and cause of the rental of separate estates； we find
everywhere that it is the result of a productive capability which
has been bestowed on it not spontaneously by nature； but chiefly
（directly or indirectly） through the mental and material labour and
capital employed thereon and through the development of society。 We
see； indeed； how pieces of land yield rents which the hand of men
has never stirred by cultivation； as； for instance； quarries； sand
pits； pasture grounds； but this rent is merely the effect of the
increase of culture； capital； and population in the vicinity。 We
see； on the other hand； that those pieces of land bring most rent
whose natural productive capability has been totally destroyed； and
which serve for no other use than for men to eat and drink； sit；
sleep； or walk； work； or enjoy themselves； teach or be taught upon；
viz。 building sites。
The basis of rent is the exclusive benefit or advantage which
the ground yields to that individual at whose exclusive disposal it
is placed； and the greatness of this benefit is determined
especially according to the amount of available mental and material
capital in the community in which he is placed； and also according
to the opportunity which the special situation and peculiar
character of the property and the utilisation of capital previously
invested therein affords to the person exclusively possessing the
property for obtaining material values； or for satisfying mental
and bodily requirements and enjoyments。
Rent is the interest of a capital which is fixed to a natural
fund； or which is a capitalised natural fund。 The territory；
however； of that nation which has merely capitalised the natural
funds devoted to agriculture； and which does so in that imperfect
manner which is the case in mere agriculture； yields incomparably
less rent than the territory of that nation which combines
agricultural and manufacturing industry on its territory。 The
rentiers of such a country live mostly in the same nation which
supplies the manufactured goods。 But when the nation which is far
advanced in agriculture and population establishes a manufacturing
industry of its own； it capitalises （as we have already proved in
a former chapter） not merely those powers of nature which are
specially serviceable for manufactures and were hitherto
unemployed； but also the greatest part of the manufacturing powers
serving for agriculture。 The increase of rent in such a nation；
therefore； infinitely exceeds the interest of the material capital
required to develop the manufacturing power。
NOTES：
1。 General Statistics of the British Empire London； 1836。
Chapter 21
The Manufacturing Power and Commerce
We have hitherto merely spoken of the relations between
agriculture and manufactures； because they form the fundamental
ingredients of the national production； and because； before
obtaining a clear view of their mutual relations； it is impossible
to comprehend correctly the actual function and position of
commerce。 Commerce is also certainly productive （as the school
maintains）； but it is so in quite a different manner from
agriculture and manufactures。 These latter actually produce goods；
commerce only brings about the exchange of the goods between
agriculturists and manufacturers； between producers and consumers。
From this it follows that commerce must be regulated according to
the interests and wants of agriculture and manufactures； not vice
vers狻�
But the school has exactly reversed this last dictum by
adopting as a favourite expression the saying of old Gourney；
'Laissez faire； laissez passer；' an expression which sounds no less
agreeably to robbers； cheats； and thieves than to the merchant； and
is on that account rather doubtful as a maxim。 This perversity of
surrendering the interests of manufactures and agriculture to the
demands of commerce； without reservation； is a natural consequence
of that theory which everywhere merely takes into consideration
present values； but nowhere the powers that produce them； and
regards the whole world as but one indivisibie republic of
merchants。 The school does not discern that the merchant may be
accomplishing his purpose （viz。 gain of values by exchange） at the
expense of the agriculturists and manufacturers； at the expense of
the nation's productive powers； and indeed of its independence。 It
is all the same to him； and according to the character of his
business and occupation； he need not trouble himself much
respecting the manner in which the goods imported or exported by
him act on the morality； the prosperity； or the power of the
nation。 He imports poisons as readily as medicines。 He enervates
whole nations through opium and spirituous liquors。 Whether he by
his importations and smugglings brings occupation and sustenance to
hundreds of thousands； or whether they are thereby reduced to
beggary； does not signify to him as a man of business； if only his
own balance is increased thereby。 Then if those who have been
reduced to want bread seek to escape the misery in their fatherland
by emigrating； he can still obtain profit by the business of
arranging their emigration。 In the time of war he provides the
enemy with arms and ammunition。 He would； if it were possible； sell
fields and meadows to foreign countries； and when he had sold the
last bit of land would place himself on board his ship and export
himself。
It is therefore evident that the interest of individual
merchants and the interest of the commerce of a whole nation are
widely different things。 In this sense Montesquieu has well said；
'If the State imposes restrictions on the individual merchant； it
does so in the interest of commerce； and his trade is nowhere more
restricted than in free and rich nations； and nowhere less so than
in nations governed by despots。'（1*） Commerce emanates from
manufactures and agriculture； and no nation which has not brought
within its own borders both these main branches of production to a
high state of development can attain （in our days） to any
considerable amount of internal and external commerce。 In former
times there certainly existed separate cities or leagues of cities
which were enabled by means of foreign manufacturers and foreign
agriculturists to carry on a large exchange trade； but since the
great agricultural manufacturing commercial states have sprung up；
we can no longer think of originating a mere exchange trade such as
the Hanse Towns possessed。 In any case such a trade is of so
precarious a character； that it hardly deserves consideration in
comparison with that which is based on the nation's own production。
The most important objects of internal commerce are articles of
food； salt； fuel； and building material； clothing materials； then
agricultural and manufacturing utensils and implements； and the raw
materials of agricultural and mining production which are necessary
for manufactures。 The extent of this internal inter change is
beyond all comparison greater in a nation in which manufacturing
industry has attained a high stage of development than in a merely
agricultural nation。 At times in the latter the agriculturist lives
chiefly on his own productions。 From want of much demand for
various products and lack of means of transport； he is obliged to
produce for himself all his requirements without regard to what his
land is more specially fitted to produce； from want of means of
exchange he must manufacture himself the greater part of the
manufactured articles which he requires。 Fuel； building materials；
provisions； and mineral products can find only a very limited
market because of the absence of improved means of transport； and
hence cannot serve as articles for a distant trade。
Owing to the limited market and the limited demand for such
products； no inducement for storing them or for the accumulation of
capital exists。 Hence the capital devoted by mere agricultural
nations to internal commerce is almost nil； hence all articles of
production； which depend especially on good or bad weather； are
subject to extraordinary fluctuation in prices； hence the danger of
scarcity and famine is therefore greater the more any nation
restricts itself to agriculture。
The internal commerce of a nation mainly arises in consequence
of and in proportion to the activity of its internal manufactures；
of the improved means of transport called forth by them； and of the
increase of population； and attains an importance which is ten to
twenty fold greater than the internal trade of a merely
agricultural nation； and five to ten fold that of the most
flourishing foreign trade。 If anyone will compare the internal
