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of　protection　as　the　most　effectual　means　for　this　purpose。　The



effects　of　this　system　for　the　purpose　in　view　are　of　two　kinds：　in



the　first　place；　by　gradually　excluding　foreign　manufactured



articles　from　our　markets；　a　surplus　would　be　occasioned　in　foreign



nations；　of　workmen；　talents；　and　capital；　which　must　seek



employment　abroad；　and　secondly　by　the　premium　which　our　system　of



protection　would　offer　to　the　immigration　into　our　country　of



workmen；　talents；　and　capital；　that　excess　of　productive　power



would　be　induced　to　find　employment　with　us；　instead　of　emigrating



to　distant　parts　of　the　world　and　to　colonies。　Political　science



refers　to　history；　and　inquires　whether　England　has　not　in　former



times　drawn　from　Germany；　Italy；　Holland；　France；　Spain；　and



Portugal　by　these　means　a　mass　of　proDuctive　power。　She　asks：　Why



does　the　cosmopolitical　school；　when　it　pretends　to　weigh　in　the



balance　the　advantages　and　the　disadvantages　of　the　system　of



protection；　utterly　ignore　this　great　and　remarkable　instance　of



the　results　of　that　system？







NOTES：







1。　It　is　alleged　that　Adam　Smith　intended　to　have　dedicated　his



great　work　to　Quesnay。　　TR。　（See　Life　of　Smith；　published　by　T。



and　J。　Allman。　1825。）







2。　The　Christian　religion　inculcates　perpetual　peace。　But　until　the



promise；　'There　shall　be　one　fold　and　one　shepherd；'　has　been



fulfilled；　the　principle　of　the　Quakers；　however　true　it　be　in



itself；　can　scarcely　be　acted　upon。　There　is　no　better　proof　for



the　Divine　origin　of　the　Christian　religion　than　that　its　doctrines



and　promises　are　in　perfect　agreement　with　the　demands　of　both　the



material　and　spiritual　well…being　of　the　human　race。







3。　This　statement　was　probably　accurate　up　to　the　period　when　List



wrote；　but　a　notable　exception　to　it　may　now　be　adduced。　The



commercial　union　of　the　various　German　states　under　the　Zollverein



preceded　by　many　years　their　political　union　under　the　Empire；　and



powerfully　promoted　it。　　TR。







Chapter　12







The　Theory　of　the　Powers　of　Production　and　the　Theory　of　Values







　　　　Adam　Smith's　celebrated　work　is　entitled；　'The　Nature　and



Causes　of　the　Wealth　of　Nations。'　The　founder　of　the　prevailing



economical　school　has　therein　indicated　the　double　point　of　view



from　which　the　economy　of　nations；　like　that　of　private　separate



individuals；　should　be　regarded。



　　　　The　causes　of　wealth　are　something　totally　different　from



wealth　itself。　A　person　may　possess　wealth；　i。e。　exchangeable



value；　if；　however；　he　does　not　possess　the　power　of　producing



objects　of　more　value　than　he　consumes；　he　will　become　poorer。　A



person　may　be　poor；　if　he；　however；　possesses　the　power　of



producing　a　larger　amount　of　valuable　articles　than　he　consumes；　he



becomes　rich。



　　　　The　power　of　producing　wealth　is　therefore　infinitely　more



important　than　wealth　itself；　it　insures　not　only　the　possession



and　the　increase　of　what　has　been　gained；　but　also　the　replacement



of　what　has　been　lost。　This　is　still　more　the　case　with　entire



nations　（who　cannot　live　out　of　mere　rentals）　than　with　private



individuals。　Germany　has　been　devastated　in　every　century　by



pestilence；　by　famine；　or　by　civil　or　foreign　wars；　she　has；



nevertheless；　always　retained　a　great　portion　of　her　powers　of



production；　and　has　thus　quickly　re…attained　some　degree　of



prosperity；　while　rich　and　mighty　but　despot…　and　priest…ridden



Spain；　notwithstanding　her　comparative　enjoyment　of　internal



peace；（1*）　has　sunk　deeper　into　poverty　and　misery。　The　same　sun



still　shines　on　the　Spaniards；　they　still　possess　the　same　area　of



territory；　their　mines　are　still　as　rich；　they　are　still　the　same



people　as　before　the　discovery　of　America；　and　before　the



introduction　of　the　Inquisition；　but　that　nation　has　gradually　lost



her　powers　of　production；　and　has　therefore　become　poor　and



miserable。　The　War　of　Independence　of　the　United　States　of　America



cost　that　nation　hundreds　of　millions；　but　her　powers　of　production



were　immeasurably　strengthened　by　gaining　independence；　and　it　was



for　this　reason　that　in　the　course　of　a　few　years　after　the　peace



she　obtained　immeasurably　greater　riches　than　she。had　ever



possessed　before。　If　we　compare　the　state　of　France　in　the　year



1809　with　that　of　the　year　1839；　what　a　difference　in　favour　of　the



latter！　Nevertheless；　France　has　in　the　interim　lost　her



sovereignty　over　a　large　portion　of　the　European　continent；　she　has



suffered　two　devastating　invasions；　and　had　to　pay　milliards　of



money　in　war　contributions　and　indemnities。



　　　　It　was　impossible　that　so　clear　an　intellect　as　Adam　Smith



possessed　could　altogether　ignore　the　difference　between　wealth　and



its　causes　and　the　overwhelming　influence　of　these　causes　on　the



condition　of　nations。　In　the　introduction　to　his　work；　he　says　in



clear　words　in　effect：　'Labour　forms　the　fund　from　which　every



nation　derives　its　wealth；　and　the　increase　of　wealth　depends　first



on　the　productive　power　of　labour；　namely；　on　the　degree　of　skill；



dexterity；　and　judgment　with　which　the　labour　of　the　nation　is



generally　applied；　and　secondly；　on　the　proportion　between　the



number　of　those　employed　productively　and　the　number　of　those　who



are　not　so　employed。'　From　this　we　see　how　clearly　Smith　in　general



perceived　that　the　condition　of　nations　is　principally　dependent　on



the　sum　of　their　productive　powers。



　　　　It　does　not；　however；　appear　to　be　the　plan　of　nature　that



complete　sciences　should　spring　already　perfected　from　the　brain　of



individual　thinkers。　It　is　evident　that　Smith　was　too　exclusively



possessed　by　the　cosmopolitical　idea　of　the　physiocrats；　'universal



freedom　of　trade；'　and　by　his　own　great　discovery；　'the　division　of



labour；'　to　follow　up　the　idea　of　the　importance　to　a　nation　of　its



powers　of　production。　However　much　science　may　be　indebted　to　him



in　respect　of　the　remaining　parts　of　his　work；　the　idea　'division



of　labour'　seemed　to　him　his　most　brilliant　thought。　It　was



calculated　to　secure　for　his　book　a　name；　and　for　himself



posthumous　fame。



　　　　He　had　too　much　worldly　wisdom　not　to　perceive　that　whoever



wishes　to　sell　a　precious　jewel　does　not　bring　the　treasure　to



market　most　profitably　by　burying　it　in　a　sack　of　wheat；　however



useful　the　grains　of　wheat　may　be；　but　better　by　exposing　it　at　the



forefront。　He　had　too　much　experience　not　to　know　that　a　d閎utant



（and　he　was　this　as　regards　political　economy　at　the　time　of　the



publication　of　his　work）　who　in　the　first　act　creates　a　furore　is



easily　excused　if　in　the　following　ones　he　only　occasionally　raises



himself　above　mediocrity；　he　had　every　motive　for　making　the



introduction　to　his　book；　the　doctrine　of　division　of　labour。　Smith



has　not　been　mistaken　in　his　calculations；　his　first　chapter　has



made　the　fortune　of　his　book；　and　founded　his　authority　as　an



economist。



　　　　However；　we　on　our　part　believe　ourselves　able　to　prove　that



just　this　zeal　to　put　the　important　discovery　'division　of　labour'



in　an　advantageous　light；　has　hindered　Adam　Smith　from　following　up



the　idea　'productive　power'　（which　has　been　expressed　by　him　in　the



introduction；　and　al　so　frequently　afterwards；　although　merely



incidentally）　and　from　exhibiting　his　doctrines　in　a　much　more



perfect　form。　By　the　great　value　which　he　attached　to　his　idea



'division　of　labour'　he　has　evidently　been　misled　into　representing



labour　itself　as　the　'fund'　of　all　the　wealth　of　nations；　although



he　himself　clearly　perceives　and　also　states　that　the



productiveness　of　labour　principally　depends　on　the　degree　of　skill



and　judgment　with　which　the　labour　is　performed。　We　ask；　can　it　be



deemed　scientific　reasoning　if　we　assign　as　the　cause　of　a



phenomenon　that　which　in　itself　is　the　result　of　a　number　of　deeper



lying　causes？　It　cannot　be　doubted　that　all　wealth　is　obtained　by



means　of　mental　and　bodily　exertions　（labour）；　but　yet　from　that



circumstance　no　reason　is　indicated　from　which　useful　conclusions



may　be　drawn；　for　history　teaches　that　whole　nations　have；　in　spite



of　the　exertions　and　of　the　thrift　of　their　citizens；　fallen　into



poverty　and　misery。　Whoever　desires　to　know　and　investigate　how　one



nation　from　a　state　of　poverty　and　barbarism　has　attained　to　one　of



wealth　and　prosperity；　and　how　another　has　fallen　from　a　condition



of　wealth　and　well…being　into　one　of　poverty　and　misery；　has



always；　after　receiving　the　information　that　labour　is　the　cause　of



wealth　and　idleness　the　cause　of　poverty　（a　remark　which　King



Solomon　made　long　before　Adam　Smith）；　to　put　the　further　question；



what　are　the　causes　of　labour；　and　what　the　causes　of　idleness？



　　　　It　would　be　more　correct　to　describe　the　limbs　of　men　（the



head；　hands；　and　feet）　as　the　causes　of　wealth　（we　should　thus　at



least　approach　far　nearer　to　the　truth）；　and　the　question　then



presents　itself；　what　is　it　that　induces　these　heads；　arms；　and



hands　to　produce；　and　calls　into　activity　these　exertions？　What



else　can　it　be　than　the　spirit　which　animates　the　individuals；　the



social　order　which　renders　their　energy　fruitful；　and　the　powers　of



nature　which　they　are　in　a　position　to　make　use　of？　The　more　a　man



perceives　that　he　must　provide　for　the　future；　the　more　his



intelligence　and　feelings　incite　him　to　secure　the　future　of　his



nearest　connections；　and　to　promote　their　well…being；　the　more　h