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very　quickly？



　　　　How　is　it　that　since　Russia　has　produced　for　herself　the



greatest　part　of　the　manufactured　goods　which　she　requires；　the



balance　of　trade　has　been　decidedly　and　lastingly　in　her　favour；



that　since　that　time　nothing　has　been　heard　of　economical



convulsions　in　Russia；　and　that　since　that　time　the　internal



prosperity　of　that　empire　has　increased　year　by　year？



　　　　How　is　it　that　in　the　United　States　of　North　America　the　same



effects　have　always　resulted　from　similar　causes？　How　is　it　that　in



the　United　States　of　North　America；　under　the　large　importation　of



manufactured　goods　which　followed　the　'Compromise　bill；'　the



balance　of　trade　was　for　a　series　of　years　so　decidedly　adverse　to



them；　and　that　this　appearance　was　accompanied　by　such　great　and



continuous　convulsions　in　the　internal　economy　of　that　nation？



　　　　How　is　it　that　we；　at　the　present　moment；　see　the　United　States



so　glutted　with　primitive　products　of　all　kinds　（cotton；　tobacco；



cattle；　corn；　&c。）　that　the　prices　of　them　have　fallen　everywhere



one…half；　and　that　at　the　same　time　these　states　are　unable　to



balance　their　exports　with　their　imports；　to　satisfy　their　debt



contracted　with　England；　and　to　put　their　credit　again　on　sound



footing？



　　　　How　is　it；　if　no　balance　of　trade　exists；　or　if　it　does　not



signify　whether　it　is　in　our　favour　or　not；　if　it　is　a　matter　of



indifference　whether　much　or　little　of　the　precious　metals　flows　to



foreign　countries；　that　England　in　the　case　of　failures　of　harvests



（the　only　case　where　the　balance　is　adverse　to　her）　strives；　with



fear　and　trembling；　to　equalise　her　exports　with　her　imports；　that



she　then　carefully　estimates　every　ounce　of　gold　or　silver　which　is



imported　or　exported；　that　her　national　bank　endeavours　most



anxiously　to　stop　the　exportation　of　precious　metals　and　to　promote



their　importation　　how　is　it；　we　ask；　if　the　balance　of　trade　is



an　'exploded　fallacy；'　that　at　such　a　time　no　English　newspaper　can



be　read　wherein　this　'exploded　fallacy'　is　not　treated　as　a　matter



of　the　most　important　concern　to　the　nation？



　　　　How　is　it　that；　in　the　United　States　of　North　America；　the　same



people　who　before　the　Compromise　bill　spoke　of　the　balance　of　trade



as　an　exploded　fallacy；　since　the　Compromise　bill　cannot　cease



speaking　of　this　exploded　fallacy　as　a　matter　of　the　utmost



importance　to　their　country？



　　　　How　is　it；　if　the　nature　of　things　itself　always　suffices　to



provide　every　country　with　exactly　the　quantity　of　precious　metals



which　it　requires；　that　the　Bank　of　England　tries　to　turn　this



so…called　nature　of　things　in　her　own　favour　by　limiting　her



credits　and　increasing　her　rates　of　discount；　and　that　the　American



banks　are　obliged　from　time　to　time　to　suspend　their　cash　payments



till　the　imports　of　the　United　States　are　reduced　to　a　tolerably



even　balance　with　the　exports？







NOTES：







1。　Wealth　of　Nations；　book　IV。　chapter　iii。







Chapter　24







The　Manufacturing　Power　and　the　Principle　of　Stability　and



Continuity　of　Work







　　　　If　we　investigate　the　origin　and　progress　of　individual



branches　of　industry　we　shall　find　that　they　have　only　gradually



become　possessed　of　improved　methods　of　operation；　machinery



buildings；　advantages　in　production；　experiences；　and　skill；　and　of



all　those　knowledges　and　connections　which　insure　to　them　the



profitable　purchase　of　their　raw　materials　and　the　profitable　sale



of　their　products。　We　may　rest　assured　that　it　is　（as　a　rule）



incomparably　easier　to　perfect　and　extend　a　business　already



established　than　to　found　a　new　one。　We　see　everywhere　old　business



establishments　that　have　lasted　for　a　series　of　generations　worked



with　greater　profits　than　new　ones。　We　observe　that　it　is　the　more



difficult　to　set　a　new　business　going　in　proportion　as　fewer



branches　of　industry　of　a　similar　character　already　exist　in　a



nation；　because；　in　that　case；　masters；　foremen；　and　workmen　must



first　be　either　trained　up　at　home　or　procured　from　abroad；　and



because　the　profitableness　of　the　business　has　not　been



sufficiently　tested　to　give　capitalists　confidence　in　its　success。



If　we　compare　the　conditions　of　distinct　classes　of　industry　in　any



nation　at　various　periods；　we　everywhere　find；　that　when　special



causes　had　not　operated　to　injure　them；　they　have　made　remarkable



progress；　not　only　in　regard　to　cheapness　of　prices；　but　also　with



respect　to　quantity　and　quality；　from　generation　to　generation。　On



the　other　hand；　we　observe　that　in　consequence　of　external



injurious　causes；　such　as　wars　and　devastation　of　territory；　&c。；



or　oppressive　tyrannical　or　fanatical　measures　of　government　and



finance　（as　e。g。　the　revocation　of　the　Edict　of　Nantes）；　whole



nations　have　been　thrown　back　for　centuries；　either　in　their　entire



industry　or　in　certain　branches　of　it；　and　have　in　this　manner　been



far　outstripped　by　nations　in　comparison　with　which　they　had



previously　been　far　advanced。



　　　　One　can　see　at　a　glance　that；　as　in　all　human　institutions　so



also　in　industry；　a　law　of　nature　lies　at　the　root　of　important



achievements　which　has　much　in　common　with　the　natural　law　of　the



division　of　labour　and　of　the　confederation　of　the　productive



forces；　whose　principle；　namely；　consists　in　the　circumstance　that



several　generations　following　one　another　have　equally　united　their



forces　towards　the　attainment　of　one　and　the　same　object；　and　have



participated　in　like　manner　in　the　exertions　needed　to　attain　it。



　　　　It　is　the　same　principle　which　in　the　cases　of　hereditary



kingdoms　has　been　incomparably　more　favourable　to　the　maintenance



and　increase　of　the　power　of　the　nation　than　the　constant　changes



of　the　ruling　families　in　the　case　of　electoral　kingdoms。



　　　　It　is　partly　this　natural　law　which　secures　to　nations　who　have



lived　for　a　long　time　past　under　a　rightly　ordered　constitutional



form　of　government；　such　great　successes　in　industry；　commerce；　and



navigation。



　　　　Only　through　this　natural　law　can　the　effect　of　the　invention



of　printing　on　human　progress　be　partially　explained。　Printing



first　rendered　it　possible　to　hand　down　the　acquisitions　of　human



knowledge　and　experience　from　the　present　to　future　generations



more　perfectly　and　completely　than　could　be　done　by　oral　tradition。



　　　　To　the　recognition　of　this　natural　law　is　undoubtedly　partly



attributable　the　division　of　the　people　into　castes；　which　existed



among　the　nations　of　antiquity；　and　also　the　law　of　the　old



Egyptians　　that　the　son　must　continue　to　follow　the　trade　or



profession　of　his　father。　Before　the　invention　and　general



dissemination　of　printing　took　place；　these　regulations　may　have



appeared　to　be　indispensable　for　the　maintenance　and　for　the



development　of　arts　and　trades。



　　　　Guilds　and　trade　societies　also　have　partly　originated　from



this　consideration。　For　the　maintenance　and　bringing　to　perfection



of　the　arts　and　sciences；　and　their　transfer　from　one　generation　to



another；　we　are　in　great　measure　indebted　to　the　priestly　castes　of



ancient　nations；　to　the　monasteries　and　universities。



　　　　What　power　and　what　influence　have　the　orders　of　priesthood　and



orders　of　knights；　as　well　as　the　papal　chair；　attained　to；　by　the



fact　that　for　centuries　they　have　aspired　to　one　and　the　same　aim；



and　that　each　successive　generation　has　always　continued　to　work



where　the　other　had　left　off。



　　　　The　importance　of　this　principle　becomes　still　more　evident　in



respect　to　material　achievements。



　　　　Individual　cities；　monasteries；　and　corporations　have　erected



works　the　total　cost　of　which　perhaps　surpassed　the　value　of　their



whole　property　at　the　time。　They　could　only　obtain　the　means　for



this　by　successive　generations　devoting　their　savings　to　one　and



the　same　great　purpose。



　　　　Let　us　consider　the　canal　and　dyke　system　of　Holland；　it



comprises　the　labours　and　savings　of　many　generations。　Only　to　a



series　of　generations　is　it　possible　to　complete　systems　of



national　transport　or　a　complete　system　of　fortifications　and



defensive　works。



　　　　The　system　of　State　credit　is　one　of　the　finest　creations　of



more　recent　statesmanship；　and　a　blessing　for　nations；　inasmuch　as



it　serves　as　the　means　of　dividing　among　several　generations　the



costs　of　those　achievements　and　exertions　of　the　present　generation



which　are　calculated　to　benefit　the　nationality　for　all　future



times；　and　which　guarantee　to　it　continued　existence；　growth；



greatness；　power；　and　increase　of　the　powers　of　production；　it



becomes　a　curse　only　if　it　serves　for　useless　national　expenditure；



and　thus　not　merely　does　not　further　the　progress　of　future



generations；　but　deprives　them　beforehand　of　the　means　of



undertaking　great　national　works；　or　also　if　the　burden　of　the



payment　of　interest　of　the　national　debt　is　thrown　on　the



consumptions　of　the　working　classes　instead　of　on　capital。



　　　　State　debts　are　bills　which　the　present　generation　draws　on



future　ones。　This　can　take　place　either　to　the　special　advantage　of



the　present　generation　or　the　special　advantage　of　the　future　one；



or　to　the　common　advantage　of　both。　In　the　first　case　only　is　this



system　an　objectionable　one。　But　all　cases　in　which　the　object　in



view　is　the　maintenance　and　promotion　of　the　greatness　and　welfare



of　the　nationality；　so　far　as　the　means　required　for　the　purpose