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time round when it was financed by equity capital。 Generally businesses 
take the view that all projects have been financed from a mon pool 
of money except for the relatively rare case when project…specific finance 
is raised。 The weightings used in the calculations should be based on 
the market value of the securities and not on their book or balance sheet 
values。 
Example 
Assume your pany intends to keep the gearing ratio of borrowed capital 
to equity in the proportion of 20 : 80。 The nominal cost of new capital 
from these sources has been assessed; say; at 10 per cent and 15 per cent 
respectively and corporation tax is 30 per cent。 The calculation of the overall 
weighted average cost is as follows: 
Type of capital Proportion (a) A。。er…tax cost (b) Weighted cost (a × b) 
10% loan capital 0。20 7。0% 1。4% 
Equity 0。80 15。0% 12。0% 
13。4% 
The resulting weighted average cost of 13。4 per cent is the minimum rate 
that this pany should accept on proposed investments。 Any investment 
that is not expected to achieve this return is not a viable proposition。 Risk 
has been allowed for in the calculation of the beta factor used in the CAPM 
method of identifying the cost of equity。 This relates to the risk of the 
existing whole business。 If a pany embarks on a project of significantly 
different risk; or has a divisional structure of activities of varying risk levels; 
then a single cost of equity for the whole pany is inappropriate。 In this 
situation; the average beta of proxy panies operating in the same field 
as a division can be used。 
INVESTMENT DECISIONS 
The cost of capital is an important figure as it is in essence the threshold 
for future investments。 Taking the figures shown above; if our weighted 
average cost of capital is 13。4 per cent then taking on any new activity that 
makes a lower profit ratio will be lowering the performance; hardly an 
MBA type of activity。 
Investment decisions; where the decisions have cost and revenue implications 
for years; perhaps even decades; fall into a number of categories:
Finance 73 
。 Bolt…on investments: These are where an investment will be supporting 
and enhancing an existing operation。 For example; if part of a production 
process is being slowed down for want of some new equipment to 
eliminate a bo。。leneck。 
。 Standalone single project: This involves a simple accept or reject 
decision。 
。 peting projects: This requires a choice of which produces the best 
results; either because only one can be pursued or because of limited 
finance。 In the la。。er case this is described as capital rationing。 
What follows is an examination of the financial aspects of investment 
decisions。 There may well be other strategic reasons for taking investment 
decisions; including those that might be more important than finance 
alone。 For example; it could be imperative to deny a petitor a particular 
opportunity; or if part of achieving a national or global strategy calls for 
disproportionate expenses in one or more areas。 However; there are NO 
circumstances when any investment decision should not be subjected to 
proper financial appraisal and so at least see the cost of accepting a lower 
return than required by the cost of capital being used。 
Also; it’s important to note that any methodology for appraising investments 
requires that cash is used rather than profits; for reasons that will 
bee apparent as the techniques are explained。 Profit is not ignored; it is 
simply allowed to work its way through in the timing of events。 
COBRA BEER 
In 1990; Cambridge…educated and recently qualified accountant Karan 
Bilimoria started importing and distributing Cobra beer; a name he 
chose because it appeared to work well in lots of different languages。 
He initially supplied his beer to plement Indian restaurant food in 
the UK。 Lord Bilimoria; as he now is; started out with debts of £20;000; 
but from a small flat in Fulham and with just a Citroen CV by way of 
assets he has grown his business to sales of over £100 million a year。 
Three factors have been key to its success。 Cobra was originally sold in 
large 660ml bottles and so were more likely to be shared by diners。 Also; 
as Cobra is less fizzy than European lagers; drinkers are less likely to feel 
bloated and can eat and drink more。 The third factor was Bilimoria’s 
extensive knowledge; through his training as an accountant; of sources 
of finance for a growing business。 He was fortunate in having an oldstyle 
bank manager who had such belief in Cobra that he agreed a 
loan of £30;000; but since then he has had to tap into every possible 
type of funding (see Figure 2。1); including selling a 28 per cent stake in 
his firm in 1995。
Figure 2。1 Cobra Beer’s financing strategy 
0 
10 
20 
30 
40 
50 
60 
70 
80
1989 
1990 
1991 
1992 
1993 
1994 
1995 
1996 
1997 
1998 
1999 
2000 
2001 
2002 
2003 
2004 
Jul 89 £7K 
Overdraft 
Nov 89 
£4K 
Overdraft 
Dec 89 
£5K 
Overdraft 
Jul 90 
£55K 
SFLGS 
Loan 
Feb 91 
£100K Bill 
of 
Exchange 
Jan 92 
£50K 
Preference 
Shares 
Feb 93 
75% 
Advance 
Factoring 
Facility 
Oct 93 5% 
Equity for 
£50K 
Dec 93 
£190K SFLGS 
Loan 
Oct 94 
£200K 
Convertible 
Preference 
Shares 
Dec 95 
£500K 
Private 
Placement 
Sold 23% 
Equity 
May 96 OD 
increased to 
£30K 
Jun 96 
Invoice 
Finance 80% 
Advance 
Sep 96 DD 
Facility 
£75K 
Dec 97 OD 
increased to 
£60K 
Jan 98 DD 
Facility 
£125K 
Jul 98 
£100K 
Convertible 
Preference 
Shares 
Sep 98 NMB 
Heller 
Invoice 
Facility 
85% 
Advance 
Nov 98 
£750K 
Convertible 
Preference 
Shares 
Apr 99 OD 
raised to 
£150K 
Aug 99 
DD 
Facility 
£250K 
Jan 00 
Trade 
Finance 
Facility 
£450K 
Universal 
Impex 
Aug 00 DD 
Facility 
£350K 
Feb 01 DD 
Facility 
£600K 
Jan 02 DD 
Facility 
£1。6m 
Oct 2002 
OD facility 
£400K HBOS 
£1。65m loan 
HBOS 
£2。5m 
replacement of 
Invoice 
discounting 
facility 
Apr 2003 
£4m New 
Preference 
Shares 
£2m DD facility 
Sales £millions
Finance 75 
Payback period 
The most popular method for evaluating investment decisions is the payback 
method。 To arrive at the payback period you have to work out how 
many years it takes to recover your cash investment。 Table 2。2 shows two 
investment projects that require respectively £20;000 and £40;000 cash now 
in order to get a series of cash returns spread over the next five years。 
Table 2。2 The payback method 
£ £ 
Investment A Investment B 
Initial cash cost NOW (Year 0) 20;000 40;000 
Net cash flows 
Year 1 1;000 10;000 
Year 2 4;000 10;000 
Year 3 8;000 16;000 
Year 4 7;000 4;000 
Year 5 5;000 28;000 
Total cash in over period 25;000 68;000 
Cash surplus 5;000 28;000 
Although both propositions call for different amounts of cash to be invested; 
we can see that both recover all their cash outlays by year 4。 So we 
can say these investments have a four…year payback。 But as a ma。。er of fact 
Investment B produces a much bigger surplus than the other project and it 
returns half our initial cash outlay in two years。 Investment A has returned 
only a quarter of our cash over that time period。 
Payback may be simple; but it is not much use when it es to dealing 
with the timing or with paring different investment amounts。 
Discounted cash flow 
We know intuitively that ge。。ing cash in sooner is be。。er than ge。。ing it in 
later。 In other words; a pound received now is worth more than a pound 
that will arrive in one; two or more years in the future because of what we 
could do with that money ourselves; or because of what we ourselves have 
to pay out to have use of that money (see Cost of capital above)。 To make 
sound investment decisions we need to ascribe a value to a future stream 
76 The Thirty…Day MBA 
of earnings to arrive at what is known as the present value。 If we know 
we could earn 20 per cent on any money we have; then the maximum we 
would be prepared to pay for a pound ing in one year hence would 
be around 80p。 If we were to pay one pound now to get a pound back in a 
year’s time we would in effect be losing money。 
The technique used to handle this is known as discounting。 The process 
is termed discounted cash flow (DCF) and the residual discounted cash is 
called the net present value。 
Table 2。3 Using discounted cash flow (DCF) 
£ Discount factor Discounted 
Cash flow at 15% cash flow 
A B A × B 
Initial cash cost NOW (Year 0) 20;000 1。00 20;000 
Net cash flows 
Year 1 1;000 0。8695 870 
Year 2 4;000 0。7561 3;024 
Year 3 8;000 0。6575 5;260 
Year 4 7;000 0。5717 4;002 
Year 5 5;000 0。4972 2;486 
Total 25;000 15;642 
Cash surplus 5;000 Net present 
value 
(4;358) 
The first column in Table 2。3 shows the simple cash…flow implications of 
an investment proposition; a surplus of £5;000 es a。。er five years from 
pu。。ing £20;000 into a project。 But if we accept the proposition that future 
cash is worth less than current cash; the only question we need to answer is 
how much less。 If we take our weighted average cost of capital as a sensible 
starting point; we would select 13。4 per cent as an appropriate rate at which 
to discount future cash flows。 To keep the numbers simple and to add a 
small margin of safety; let’s assume that 15 per cent is the rate we have 
selected (this doesn’t ma。。er too much; as you will see in the section on 
internal rate of return)。 
The formula for calculating what a pound received at some future date 
is: 
Present Value (PV) = £P X 1 
(1+r)n
Finance 77 
where £P is the initial cash cost; r is the interest rate expressed in decimals 
and n is the year in which the cash will arrive。 So if we decide on a discount 
rate of 15 per cent; the present value of a pound received in one year’s time 
is: 
Present Value = £1 X 1 
(1 + 0。15) 1 = 0。87 (rounded to two decimal places)。 
So we can see that our £1;000 arriving at the end of year 1 has a present 
value of £870; the £4;000 in year 2 has a present value of £3;024 and by 
year 5 present value reduces cash flows to barely half their original figure。 
In fact; far from having 

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