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In fact; far from having a real payback in year 4 and generating a cash 
surplus of £5;000; this project will make us £4;358 worse off than we had 
hoped to be if we required to make a return of 15 per cent。 The project; in 
other words; fails to meet our criteria using DCF but might well have been 
pursued using payback。 
Internal rate of return (IRR) 
DCF is a useful starting point but does not give us any definitive information。 
For example; all we know about the above project is that it doesn’t 
make a return of 15 per cent。 In order to know the actual rate of return we 
need to choose a discount rate that produces a net present value of the entire 
cash flow of zero; known as the internal rate of return。 The maths is time 
consuming but Solutions Matrix website (solutionmatrix) has a 
tool for working out payback; discounted cash flow; internal rate of return; 
and a whole lot more calculations relating to capital budgeting。 You have 
to register on the site first before downloading their free capital budgeting 
spreadsheet suite and tutorial。 From the home page you should click on 
‘Download Center’ and ‘Download Financial Metrics Lite for Microso。。 
Excel’。 
Using this spreadsheet you will see that the IRR for the project in question 
is slightly under 7 per cent; not much be。。er than bank interest and certainly 
insufficient to warrant taking any risks for。 
BUDGETS AND VARIANCES 
Budgeting is the principal interface between the operating business units 
and the finance department。 As a staff function (see Chapter 4 for more 
on line and staff functions); the finance department will assist managers 
in preparing a detailed budget for the year ahead for every area of the 
organization and is in effect the first year of the business plan。 MBAs are 
invariably expected to play a role in facilitating the process within their 
78 The Thirty…Day MBA 
departments。 Budgets are usually reviewed at least halfway through the 
year and o。。en quarterly。 At that review a further quarter or half year can be 
added to the budget to maintain a one…year budget horizon。 This is known 
as a ‘rolling quarterly (half yearly) budget’。 
Budget guidelines 
Budgets should adhere to the following general principles: 
。 The budget must be based on realistic but challenging goals。 Those goals 
are arrived at by both a top…down ‘aspiration’ of senior management 
and a bo。。om…up forecast of what the department concerned sees as 
possible。 
。 The budget should be prepared by those responsible for delivering the 
results – the salespeople should prepare the sales budget and the production 
people the production budget。 Senior managers must maintain 
the munication process so that everyone knows what other parties 
are planning for。 
。 Agreement to the budget should be explicit。 During the budgeting 
process; several versions of a particular budget should be discussed。 
For example; the boss may want a sales figure of £2 million; but the 
sales team’s initial forecast is for £1。75 million。 
。 A。。er some debate; £1。9 million may be the figure agreed upon。 Once 
a figure is agreed; a virtual contract exists that declares a mitment 
from employees to achieve the target and mitments from the 
employer to be satisfied with the target and to supply resources in 
order to achieve it。 It makes sense for this contract to be in writing。 
。 The budget needs to be finalized at least a month before the start of the 
year and not weeks or months into the year。 
。 The budget should undergo fundamental reviews periodically throughout 
the year to make sure all the basic assumptions that underpin it still 
hold good。 
。 Accurate information to review performance against budgets should 
be available 7 to 10 working days before the month’s end。 
Variance analysis 
Explaining variances is also an MBA…type task so performance needs to be 
carefully monitored and pared against the budget as the year proceeds; 
and corrective action must be taken where necessary。 This has to be done on 
a monthly basis (or using shorter time intervals if required); showing both 
the pany’s performance during the month in question and throughout 
the year so far。
Finance 79 
Looking at Table 2。4; we can see at a glance that the business is behind 
on sales for this month; but ahead on the yearly target。 The convention is to 
put all unfavourable variations in brackets。 Hence; a higher…than…budgeted 
sales figure does not have brackets; while a higher materials cost does。 We 
can also see that; while profit is running ahead of budget; the profit margin 
is slightly behind (–0。30 per cent)。 
Table 2。4 The fixed budget 
Heading Month Year to date 
Budget Actual Variance Budget Actual Variance 
Sales 805* 753 (52) 6;358 7;314 956 
Materials 627 567 60 4;942 5;704 (762) 
Materials 
margin 
178 186 8 1;416 1;610 194 
Direct costs 74 79 (5) 595 689 (94) 
Gross profit 104 107 3 820 921 101 
Percentage 12。92 14。21 1。29 12。90 12。60 (0。30) 
* Figures indicate thousands of pounds 
This is partly because other direct costs; such as labour and distribution in 
this example; are running well ahead of budget。 
Flexing the budget 
A budget is based on a particular set of sales goals; few of which are likely 
to be exactly met in practice。 Table 2。4 shows a pany that has used 
£762;000 more materials than budgeted。 As more has been sold; this is 
hardly surprising。 The way to manage this situation is to flex the budget 
to show what; given the sales that actually occurred; would be expected 
to happen to expenses。 Applying the budget ratios to the actual data does 
this。 For example; materials were planned to be 22。11 per cent of sales in 
the budget。 By applying that to the actual month’s sales; a materials cost of 
£587;000 is arrived at。 
Looking at the flexed budget in Table 2。5; we can see that the pany 
has spent £19;000 more than expected on the material given the level of 
sales actually achieved; rather than the £762;000 overspend shown in the 
fixed budget。 
The same principle holds for other direct costs; which appear to be running 
£94;000 over budget for the year。 When we take into account the extra 
sales shown in the flexed budget; we can see that the pany has actually 
80 The Thirty…Day MBA 
spent £4;000 over budget on direct costs。 While this is serious; it is not as 
serious as the fixed budget suggests。 
The flexed budget allows you to concentrate your efforts on dealing with 
true variances in performance。 
The following website; SCORE (score 》 Business Tools 》 
Template Gallery 》 Sales Forecast); has a downloadable Excel spreadsheet 
from which you can make sales and cost projections on a trial and error 
basis。 Once you are satisfied with your projection; use the profit and loss 
projection (score 》 Business Tools 》 Template Gallery 》 Profit and 
Loss Projection (3 Years)) to plete your budget。 
Seasonality and trends 
The figures shown for each period of the budget are not the same。 For 
example; a sales budget of £1。2 million for the year does not translate to 
£100;000 a month。 The exact figure depends on two factors: 
。 The projected trend may forecast that; while sales at the start of the year 
are £80;000 a month; they will change to £120;000 a month by the end of 
the year。 The average would be £100;000。 
。 By virtue of seasonal factors; each month may also be adjusted up or 
down from the underlying trend。 You could expect the sales of heating 
oil; for example; to peak in the autumn and tail off in the late spring。 
See also Chapter 11; Quantitative and qualitative research and analysis; for 
more on forecasting。 
Table 2。5 The flexed budget 
Heading Month Year to date 
Budget Actual Variance Budget Actual Variance 
Sales 753* 753 – 7;314 7;314 – 
Materials 587 567 20 5;685 5;704 (19) 
Materials 
margin 
166 186 20 1;629 1;610 (19) 
Direct costs 69 79 (10) 685 689 (4) 
Gross profit 97 107 10 944 921 (23) 
Percentage 12。92 14。21 1。29 12。90 12。60 (0。30) 
* Figures indicate thousands of pounds
Marketing 
。 Measuring markets 
。 Assessing strengths and weaknesses 
。 Understanding customers 
。 Segmenting markets 
。 The marketing mix 
。 Selling 
。 Researching markets 
Business schools didn’t invent marketing but they certainly ensured its preeminence 
as an academic discipline。 Principles of Marketing and Marketing 
Management; seminal books on the subject by Philip Kotler (et al) of Kellogg 
School of Management at Northwestern University; have been core reading 
on management programmes the world over for decades。 The School’s 
marketing department has rated at the top in all national and international 
ranking surveys conducted during the past 15 years。 'You can see Kotler 
lecture at this link: anaheim。ed 》 CEO Webcast' 
Marketing is defined as the process that ensures the right products and 
services get to the right markets at the right time and at the right price。 The 
devil in that sentence lies in the use of the word ‘right’。 The deal has to work 
for the customer; because if they don’t want what you have to offer the game 
is over before you begin。 You have to offer value and satisfaction; otherwise 
people will either choose an apparently superior petitor or; if they do 
buy from you and are dissatisfied; they won’t buy again。 Worse still; they 
may bad…mouth you to a lot of other people。 For you the marketer; being 
right means that there have to be enough people wanting your product or 
service to make the venture profitable; and ideally those numbers should 
be ge。。ing bigger rather than smaller。 
So inevitably marketing is something of a voyage of discovery for both 
supplier and consumer; from which both parties learn something and 
hopefully improve。 The boundaries of marketing stretch from inside the 
3
82 The Thirty…Day MBA 
mind of the customer; perhaps uncovering emotions they were themselves 
barely aware of; out to the logistic support systems that get the product or 
service into customers’ hands。 Each part of the value chain from pany 
to consumer has the potential to add value or kill the deal。 For example; 
at the heart of the Amazon business proposition are

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