30+mba-第37部分
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separate occasion）。
。 It should be results oriented rather than personality oriented。 The appraisal
interview starts with a review against objectives and finishes by
se。。ing objectives for the next period。
Organizational Behaviour 155
。 Appraisals should be regular and timely。 At least annually； perhaps
more frequent in periods of rapid change。 New employees should be
appraised in their first three months。
。 Sufficient time should be allowed and the appraisal needs to be carried
out free from interruptions。
EPIC Training and Consulting Services has a free Workforce Development
Toolkit on its website； including a guide on carrying out appraisals and
templates for both appraiser and appraisee （h。。p：//workforce。epicltd）。
Development
If an organization is only as effective as the people it employs； it follows
that the money invested in developing them and improving their skills
should translate into improved results for the business as a whole。 The
statistics support the argument that money spent wisely on development
pays dividends； so as a task it forms a major part of the human resources
department’s workload。
Two acronyms an MBA will find useful to pump…prime any development
plan are the following。
KSAs （Knowledge； skills and attitudes）
Development programmes have learning objectives in each of these three
areas and all three aspects need to be addressed for development to have
the greatest impact：
。 Knowledge； described as perception； learning and reasoning。 Would it
was as simple as that； but the HR and learning gurus have subdivided
that into： declarative knowledge or factual information； procedural
knowledge； that is； understanding how and when to apply the facts；
and strategic knowledge； used in planning and evaluating。
。 Skills are concerned with a proficiency level； for example in using a
so。。ware application such as Excel； making a presentation； operating
equipment； closing a sale or negotiating a deal。
。 A。。itudes are the positive； negative or neutral feelings arising out of
opinions and beliefs concerning actions that affect motivation levels；
which in turn influence a person’s behaviour。
TNA （Training needs analysis）
This process identifies the gap between the skills an organization needs to
achieve its strategic and tactical goals and the skills employees currently
have。 Employee surveys； management observations； customer ments
and appraisal are all among the tools used to gather information to identify
training needs。 （See Figure 4。12。）
156 The Thirty…Day MBA
Organizations have a wide repertory of tools to apply to ensure that people
are developed。 Governments have an interest in encouraging training and
o。。en provide information on where training programmes are being run as
well as offering grants to help with the costs。 These should be explored at
the outset； as any financial assistance can sweeten the budgetary pill。 The
main options in terms of learning methods are：
。 On…the…job coaching and mentoring： This is where people learn from
someone more experienced how a job should be done。 The advantages
are that it is free and involves no time away from work。 It should also
be directly related to an individual’s training needs。 However； it is only
as good as the coach and if they are untrained you could end up simply
replicating poor working standards。
。 In…house classroom training： This is the most traditional and familiar
form of training。 Some； or all； of your employees gather in a ‘classroom’
either on your premises or in a local hotel。 You hire in a trainer or use
one of your own experienced staff。 This method provides plenty of
opportunity for group interaction and the instructor can motivate the
class and pay some a。。ention to individual needs。 The disadvantages；
particularly if it is held away from your premises； are that you incur
large costs that are more to do with hospitality than training； it is time
consuming and it may be difficult to release a large enough number of
employees at the same time to achieve economies of scale。
。 Public courses： These are less expensive than running a training
programme in a hotel。 You can also select different courses for different
employees and so tailor the training more precisely to their needs。 Most
public courses are generic and the other a。。endees are more likely to
e from big business or even the public sector。 So； much of what is
covered may be of li。。le direct relevance to your business and quality
can be patchy。
Figure 4。12 Training needs analysis worksheet
Development area Gap
identified
Action to be taken
to address the gap
Date action to be
achieved by
Knowledge
Skills
Attitudes
Learning options
Organizational Behaviour 157
。 Interactive distance learning： This kind of training can be delivered by a
bination of traditional training materials； teleconferencing； internet
and e…mail discussions。 You miss out on the personal contact； but the
costs are much lower than traditional training。
。 Off…the…shelf training programmes： These e in packaged kits； which
may consist of a training manual； video or a CD ROM。 Once again the
cost is lower than for face…to…face training； but you miss out on a professional
trainer’s input。
。 Universities and colleges： Many universities and business schools now
offer programmes tailored for the needs of the organization。 Professional
instructors who understand the needs of small firms deliver
these。 They are relatively expensive but can o。。en be very effective。
。 Business games； case studies and simulation exercises： A business game
is virtually mandatory at some stage while taking an MBA。 The game
is constructed as a model； usually though not always so。。ware based；
to simulate an entire pany or industry or a particular functional
area。 They allow trainees working in teams to see how their decisions
and actions influence a bigger picture。 Outward Bound activities are
also popular MBA development tools； using hazardous remote environments
to create opportunities for conflict； leadership and the
prospects of cohesion。 These are also popular as elements in the management
selection process。
Preparing for development
To make sure you get the best out of investment in development； follow
these guidelines：
。 Introduce a routine that ensures all employees a。。ending training are
briefed at least a week beforehand on what to expect and what is expected
of them。
。 Ensure that all employees discuss with their manager or supervisor
what they got out of the training programme – in particular； did it meet
both their expectations。 This should take place no later than a week
a。。er the programme。
。 Managers should check within a month and then again at regular intervals
to see whether skills have been improved； and that those skills are
being put into practice。
。 Evaluate the costs and benefits of your training and development plans；
arriving at financial ratio such as return on investment； and use this
information to help set next year’s training budget。
158 The Thirty…Day MBA
MANAGING CHANGE
The story told in business schools to illustrate the dangers of ignoring the
need for change is that of the hypothetical frog dropped into a pot of boiling
water。 The immediate impact of a radically different environment spurs the
frog into action； leaping out of the pot。 The same frog placed in the same
pot； but where the initial temperature is much lower； will happily allow
itself to be boiled to death； failing to recognize the danger if the process is
slow enough。
The first task of a leader； therefore； is to define an organization’s purpose
and direction。 This inevitably means changing those in response to changing
circumstances。
Why change is necessary
The need for change es from two main directions： either a new impetus
from outside or inside the organization； or from the natural evolution of
the organization itself。
Impetus…driven change
These are the primary sources of the impetus for change that disturb the
equilibrium of an organization：
。 New management： This doesn’t always trigger change but the temptation
to tamper with even the best of organizations is usually too much
for a ‘new broom’。 The person appointed almost invariably will want
to put their stamp on strategy and structure； if all was really so hunkydory；
why appoint them in the first place？
。 petitor behaviour： This can be either new entrants or existing
players changing the dynamics in your markets by peting with
be。。er products； lower prices or smarter operations。
。 Technology： Changes here can hit whole business sectors。 For example；
the advent initially of online DVD services and more recently of
broadband delivery has profoundly changed the environment for the
retail video rental business。
。 Economic； political or legal environment： These include such factors
as： business cycles altering demand levels radically； changes of government
with consequent shi。。s in expenditure and taxation； and regulatory
changes such as those affecting the tobacco industry and its ability
to promote its wares。
Organizational Behaviour 159
Natural evolution
Organizations are in some ways like living organisms and have a natural
progression from birth through childhood； adolescence； adulthood； senility
and death。 Some stages in the process for an organization are easily
recognizable。 All have a start and finish date and though their life span
varies； for businesses at least； the average is around 35 to 38 years。 Some
last much longer； there is a small club for businesses who have been around
for over 250 years。 （Japan’s 1；400…year…old Kongo Gumi may be the oldest
business enterprise； but guns （Bere。。a）； banking （Rothschild） and booze （the
Gekkeikan brewery founded in 1627） also feature strongly （see ‘Business
history’）。）
The phases of growth
Larry Greiner； a Harvard professor； identified the key phases an organization
has to go through in its path to maturity。 （See Figure 4。13。） Churchill
and Lewis （Churchill； N C and Lewis； V L （1983） ‘The Five Stages of Small
Busi
