30+mba-µÚ38²¿·Ö
°´¼üÅÌÉÏ·½Ïò¼ü ¡û »ò ¡ú ¿É¿ìËÙÉÏÏ·ҳ£¬°´¼üÅÌÉ쵀 Enter ¼ü¿É»Øµ½±¾ÊéĿ¼ҳ£¬°´¼üÅÌÉÏ·½Ïò¼ü ¡ü ¿É»Øµ½±¾Ò³¶¥²¿£¡
¡ª¡ª¡ª¡ªÎ´ÔĶÁÍꣿ¼ÓÈëÊéÇ©ÒѱãÏ´μÌÐøÔĶÁ£¡
and¡¡Lewis¡¡£¨Churchill£»¡¡N¡¡C¡¡and¡¡Lewis£»¡¡V¡¡L¡¡£¨1983£©¡¡¡®The¡¡Five¡¡Stages¡¡of¡¡Small¡¡
Business¡¡Growth¡¯£»¡¡Harvard¡¡Business¡¡Review£»¡¡May/June£©¡¡refined¡¡this¡¡for¡¡small¡¡
businesses¡£¡¡
Figure¡¡4¡£13¡¡The¡¡five¡¡phases¡¡of¡¡growth¡¡
Source£º¡¡L¡¡E¡¡Greiner£»¡¡Harvard¡¡Business¡¡Review£»¡¡July/August¡¡1972¡¡
Size¡¡of¡¡organization¡¡
Age¡¡of¡¡organization¡¡
2¡£¡¡Crisis¡¡of¡¡
AUTONOMY¡¡
1¡£¡¡Crisis¡¡of¡¡
LEADERSHIP¡¡
3¡£¡¡Crisis¡¡of¡¡
CONTROL¡¡
4¡£¡¡Crisis¡¡of¡¡RED¡¡
TAPE¡¡
5¡£¡¡Crisis¡¡of¡¡£¿¡¡
Phase¡¡1¡¡Phase¡¡2¡¡Phase¡¡3¡¡Phase¡¡4¡¡Phase¡¡5¡¡
LARGE¡¡
SMALL¡¡
YOUNG¡¡MATURE¡¡
1¡£¡¡Growth¡¡through¡¡
CREATIVITY
2¡£¡¡Growth¡¡through¡¡
DIRECTION¡¡
3¡£¡¡Growth¡¡through¡¡
DELEGATION
4¡£¡¡Growth¡¡through¡¡
COORDINATION¡¡
5¡£¡¡Growth¡¡through¡¡
COLLABORATION
160¡¡The¡¡Thirty¡Day¡¡MBA¡¡
Each¡¡phase¡¡of¡¡growth¡¡calls¡¡for¡¡a¡¡different¡¡approach¡¡to¡¡managing¡¡the¡¡
organization¡£¡¡Sometimes¡¡strong¡¡leadership¡¡is¡¡required£»¡¡at¡¡others¡¡a¡¡more¡¡
consultative¡¡approach¡¡is¡¡appropriate¡£¡¡Some¡¡phases¡¡call¡¡for¡¡more¡¡systems¡¡
and¡¡procedures£»¡¡some¡¡for¡¡more¡¡cooperation¡¡between¡¡staff¡£¡¡O¡£¡£en¡¡leaders¡¡
believe¡¡that¡¡taking¡¡on¡¡another¡¡salesperson£»¡¡a¡¡few¡¡hundred¡¡thousand¡¡square¡¡
metres¡¡of¡¡space¡¡or¡¡another¡¡bank¡¡loan¡¡can¡¡solve¡¡the¡¡problems¡¡of¡¡growing¡¡
up¡£¡¡This¡¡approach¡¡is¡¡rather¡¡like¡¡suggesting¡¡that¡¡the¡¡transition¡¡from¡¡infancy¡¡
to¡¡adulthood¡¡could¡¡be¡¡acplished¡¡by¡¡nothing¡¡more¡¡significant¡¡than¡¡providing¡¡
larger¡¡clothes¡£¡¡
Managing¡¡the¡¡process¡¡
Because¡¡change¡¡is¡¡inevitable¡¡and¡¡unpredictable¡¡in¡¡its¡¡consequences¡¡doesn¡¯t¡¡
mean¡¡that¡¡it¡¡can¡¯t¡¡be¡¡managed¡¡as¡¡a¡¡process¡£¡¡These¡¡are¡¡the¡¡stages¡¡in¡¡managing¡¡
change£º¡¡
¡£¡¡Tell¡¡them¡¡why£º¡¡Change¡¡is¡¡be¡£¡£er¡¡accepted¡¡when¡¡people¡¡are¡¡given¡¡a¡¡pelling¡¡
business¡¡reason¡£¡¡Few¡¡bankers¡¡would¡¡question¡¡the¡¡need¡¡for¡¡change¡¡
a¡£¡£er¡¡the¡¡2008¡¡debacles¡¡at¡¡Bear¡¡Stearns£»¡¡SocGen¡¡and¡¡Northern¡¡Rock¡£¡¡
¡£¡¡Make¡¡it¡¡manageable£º¡¡Even¡¡when¡¡people¡¡accept¡¡what¡¡needs¡¡to¡¡be¡¡done£»¡¡
the¡¡change¡¡may¡¡just¡¡be¡¡too¡¡big¡¡for¡¡anyone¡¡to¡¡handle¡£¡¡Breaking¡¡it¡¡down¡¡
into¡¡manageable¡¡bits¡¡can¡¡help¡¡overe¡¡this¡£¡¡
¡£¡¡Take¡¡a¡¡shared¡¡approach£º¡¡Involve¡¡people¡¡early£»¡¡asking¡¡them¡¡to¡¡join¡¡you¡¡
in¡¡managing¡¡change£»¡¡and¡¡give¡¡key¡¡participants¡¡some¡¡say¡¡in¡¡shaping¡¡
the¡¡change¡¡right¡¡from¡¡the¡¡start¡£¡¡This¡¡will¡¡reduce¡¡the¡¡feeling¡¡that¡¡change¡¡
is¡¡being¡¡imposed¡¡and¡¡more¡¡brains¡¡will¡¡be¡¡brought¡¡to¡¡bear¡¡on¡¡the¡¡
problem¡£¡¡
¡£¡¡Reward¡¡success¡¡early£º¡¡Flag¡¡up¡¡successes¡¡as¡¡quickly¡¡as¡¡possible¡£¡¡Don¡¯t¡¡
wait¡¡for¡¡the¡¡year¡end¡¡or¡¡the¡¡appraisal¡¡cycle¡£¡¡This¡¡will¡¡inspire¡¡confidence¡¡
and¡¡keep¡¡the¡¡change¡¡process¡¡on¡¡track¡£¡¡
¡£¡¡Expect¡¡resistance£º¡¡Kurt¡¡Lewin£»¡¡a¡¡German¡born¡¡professor¡¡at¡¡the¡¡
Massachuse¡£¡£s¡¡Institute¡¡of¡¡Technology¡¡£¨MIT£©£»¡¡was¡¡one¡¡of¡¡the¡¡first¡¡researchers¡¡
to¡¡study¡¡group¡¡dynamics¡¡and¡¡how¡¡change¡¡can¡¡be¡¡best¡¡effected¡¡
in¡¡organizations¡£¡¡In¡¡1943¡¡in¡¡an¡¡article¡¡entitled¡¡¡®Defining¡¡the¡¡Field¡¡at¡¡a¡¡
Given¡¡Time¡¯¡¡published¡¡in¡¡the¡¡Psychological¡¡Review£»¡¡Lewin¡¡described¡¡
what¡¡is¡¡now¡¡known¡¡as¡¡Force¡¡Field¡¡Analysis¡£¡¡This¡¡is¡¡a¡¡tool¡¡£¨see¡¡Figure¡¡
4¡£14£©¡¡that¡¡you¡¡can¡¡use¡¡to¡¡anticipate¡¡resistance¡¡to¡¡change¡¡and¡¡plan¡¡to¡¡
overe¡¡it¡£¡¡
¡£¡¡Recognize¡¡that¡¡change¡¡takes¡¡longer¡¡than¡¡expected£º¡¡Three¡¡researchers¡¡
£¨Adams£»¡¡J£»¡¡Hayes£»¡¡J¡¡and¡¡Hopson£»¡¡B£©¡¡explained¡¡in¡¡Transition£º¡¡Understanding¡¡
and¡¡Managing¡¡Personal¡¡Change¡¡£¨1976£»¡¡Martin¡¡Robinson£»¡¡London£©¡¡the¡¡six¡¡
stages¡¡that¡¡people¡¡go¡¡through¡¡when¡¡experiencing¡¡change¡¡and¡¡hence¡¡
the¡¡reason¡¡the¡¡process¡¡takes¡¡so¡¡long¡£¡¡The¡¡stages¡¡are£º¡¡immobilization¡¡or¡¡
shock£»¡¡disbelief£»¡¡depression£»¡¡acceptance¡¡of¡¡reality£»¡¡testing¡¡out¡¡the¡¡new¡¡
Organizational¡¡Behaviour¡¡161¡¡
situation£»¡¡rationalizing¡¡why¡¡it¡¯s¡¡happening¡¡and¡¡then¡¡final¡¡acceptance¡£¡¡
Most¡¡major¡¡changes¡¡make¡¡things¡¡worse¡¡before¡¡they¡¡make¡¡them¡¡be¡£¡£er¡£¡¡
More¡¡o¡£¡£en¡¡than¡¡not£»¡¡the¡¡immediate¡¡impact¡¡of¡¡change¡¡is¡¡a¡¡decrease¡¡in¡¡
productivity¡¡as¡¡people¡¡struggle¡¡to¡¡cope¡¡with¡¡new¡¡ways¡¡of¡¡working¡¡
while¡¡they¡¡move¡¡up¡¡their¡¡own¡¡learning¡¡curve¡£¡¡The¡¡doubters¡¡will¡¡gloat¡¡
and¡¡even¡¡the¡¡change¡¡champions¡¡may¡¡waver¡£¡¡But¡¡the¡¡greatest¡¡danger¡¡
now¡¡is¡¡pulling¡¡the¡¡plug¡¡on¡¡the¡¡plan¡¡and¡¡either¡¡adopting¡¡a¡¡new¡¡plan¡¡or¡¡
reverting¡¡to¡¡the¡¡status¡¡quo¡£¡¡To¡¡prevent¡¡this¡¡¡®disappointment¡¯¡¡it¡¡is¡¡vital¡¡
both¡¡to¡¡set¡¡realistic¡¡goals¡¡for¡¡the¡¡change¡¡period¡¡and¡¡to¡¡anticipate¡¡the¡¡
time¡¡lag¡¡between¡¡change¡¡and¡¡results¡£¡¡
Figure¡¡4¡£14¡¡Force¡¡field¡¡analysis¡¡template¡¡
What¡¡is¡¡the¡¡problem/¡¡
change¡¡issue£¿¡¡
Where¡¡are¡¡we¡¡now£¿¡¡
Where¡¡do¡¡we¡¡want¡¡to¡¡get¡¡
to£¿¡¡
What/who¡¡are¡¡the¡¡main¡¡
forces¡¡at¡¡work£¿¡¡
Driving¡¡forces¡¡Neutral¡¡forces¡¡Resisting¡¡forces¡¡
What¡¡action¡¡can¡¡we¡¡take¡¡
to¡¡help¡¡driving¡¡forces£»¡¡
encourage¡¡neutral¡¡forces¡¡
to¡¡help¡¡and¡¡to¡¡overe¡¡
resisting¡¡forces£¿¡¡
Monitoring¡¡staff¡¡morale¡¡
One¡¡way¡¡both¡¡to¡¡identify¡¡the¡¡need¡¡for¡¡change¡¡and¡¡to¡¡keep¡¡track¡¡of¡¡progress¡¡
while¡¡implementing¡¡changes¡¡is¡¡to¡¡carry¡¡out¡¡regular¡¡surveys¡¡of¡¡employee¡¡
a¡£¡£itudes£»¡¡opinions¡¡and¡¡feelings¡£¡¡HR¡Survey¡¡£¨hr¡survey¡¡¡·¡¡
Employee¡¡Opinions£©¡¡and¡¡Custom¡¡Insight¡¡£¨custominsight¡¡¡·¡¡View¡¡
Samples¡¡¡·¡¡Sample¡¡employee¡¡satisfaction¡¡survey£©¡¡provide¡¡fast£»¡¡simple¡¡and¡¡
easy¡to¡use¡¡so¡£¡£ware¡¡to¡¡carry¡¡out¡¡and¡¡analyse¡¡Human¡¡Resources¡¡surveys¡£¡¡
They¡¡both¡¡have¡¡a¡¡range¡¡of¡¡examples¡¡of¡¡surveys¡¡that¡¡you¡¡can¡¡see¡¡and¡¡try¡¡
before¡¡you¡¡buy£»¡¡which£»¡¡who¡¡knows£»¡¡might¡¡just¡¡be¡¡enough¡¡to¡¡stimulate¡¡your¡¡
thinking¡£
Business¡¡history¡¡
¡£¡¡The¡¡foundations¡¡of¡¡contract¡¡law¡¡
¡£¡¡The¡¡first¡¡business¡¡gurus¡¡
¡£¡¡Early¡¡accounting¡¡£¨and¡¡the¡¡death¡¡penalty£¡£©¡¡
¡£¡¡Stock¡¡markets¡¡and¡¡coffee¡¡houses¡¡
¡£¡¡Limiting¡¡liabilities¡¡
¡£¡¡Encouraging¡¡innovations¡¡
¡£¡¡Banking¡¡beginnings¡¡
¡£¡¡The¡¡world¡¯s¡¡oldest¡¡ventures¡¡
¡®Those¡¡who¡¡cannot¡¡learn¡¡from¡¡history¡¡are¡¡doomed¡¡to¡¡repeat¡¡it¡¯£»¡¡a¡¡quote¡¡
a¡£¡£ributed¡¡in¡¡several¡¡guises¡¡to¡¡the¡¡philosopher¡¡George¡¡Santayana£»¡¡is¡¡just¡¡one¡¡
of¡¡a¡¡host¡¡of¡¡contradictory¡¡messages¡¡on¡¡the¡¡relevance¡¡of¡¡a¡¡study¡¡of¡¡history¡£¡¡
Henry¡¡Ford£»¡¡the¡¡founder¡¡of¡¡the¡¡car¡¡pany£»¡¡famously¡¡said£º¡¡¡®History¡¡is¡¡
more¡¡or¡¡less¡¡bunk¡£¡¡It¡¯s¡¡tradition¡£¡¡We¡¡don¡¯t¡¡want¡¡tradition¡£¡¡We¡¡want¡¡to¡¡live¡¡in¡¡
the¡¡present¡¡and¡¡the¡¡only¡¡history¡¡that¡¡is¡¡worth¡¡a¡¡tinker¡¯s¡¡damn¡¡is¡¡the¡¡history¡¡
we¡¡make¡¡today¡£¡¯¡¡
There¡¡are¡¡at¡¡least¡¡two¡¡reasons¡¡why¡¡an¡¡MBA¡¡student¡¡should¡¡acquire¡¡a¡¡
basic¡¡appreciation¡¡of¡¡the¡¡milestone¡¡events¡¡that¡¡have¡¡led¡¡up¡¡to¡¡the¡¡current¡¡
theories¡¡of¡¡how¡¡organizations£»¡¡their¡¡constituents¡¡and¡¡their¡¡surrounding¡¡
environments¡¡currently¡¡operate¡£¡¡The¡¡first¡¡is¡¡much¡¡the¡¡same¡¡reason¡¡as¡¡why¡¡
most¡¡people¡¡learn¡¡something¡¡of¡¡the¡¡history¡¡of¡¡their¡¡country£»¡¡its¡¡neighbours£»¡¡
its¡¡friends¡¡and¡¡enemies¡£¡¡Such¡¡a¡¡study¡¡lends¡¡interest£»¡¡context¡¡and¡¡an¡¡appreciation¡¡
of¡¡how¡¡we¡¡got¡¡to¡¡where¡¡we¡¡are¡¡today¡£¡¡It¡¡is¡¡much¡¡easier¡¡to¡¡understand£»¡¡
for¡¡example£»¡¡the¡¡enmity¡¡between¡¡the¡¡French¡¡and¡¡the¡¡British¡¡with¡¡
a¡¡sma¡£¡£ering¡¡of¡¡information¡¡on¡¡the¡¡Hundred¡¡Years¡¯¡¡War£»¡¡the¡¡Peninsula¡¡
War¡¡and¡¡the¡¡smouldering¡¡mercial¡¡and¡¡territorial¡¡disputes¡¡that¡¡ranged¡¡
around¡¡the¡¡world¡¡from¡¡the¡¡Americas¡¡to¡¡India¡¡as¡¡well¡¡as¡¡across¡¡the¡¡African¡¡
continent¡£¡¡
The¡¡second¡¡reason¡¡is¡¡perhaps¡¡even¡¡more¡¡important¡£¡¡Harvard¡¡professor¡¡
Geoffrey¡¡Jones£»¡¡who¡¡edited¡¡The¡¡Oxford¡¡Handbook¡¡of¡¡Business¡¡History¡¡£¨2008£»¡¡
5
Business¡¡History¡¡163¡¡
Oxford¡¡Handbooks¡¡in¡¡Business¡¡&¡¡Management£©¡¡with¡¡University¡¡of¡¡
Wisconsin¡Madison¡¡professor¡¡Jonathan¡¡Zeitlin£»¡¡claims¡¡in¡¡his¡¡core¡¡history¡¡
text¡¡used¡¡at¡¡Harvard¡¡that£º¡¡¡®Over¡¡the¡¡last¡¡few¡¡decades£»¡¡business¡¡historians¡¡
have¡¡generated¡¡rich¡¡empirical¡¡data¡¡that¡¡in¡¡some¡¡cases¡¡confirms¡¡and¡¡in¡¡other¡¡
cases¡¡contradicts¡¡many¡¡of¡¡today¡¯s¡¡fashionable¡¡theories¡¡and¡¡assumptions¡¡by¡¡
other¡¡disciplines¡£¡¡But¡¡unless¡¡you¡¡were¡¡a¡¡business¡¡historian£»¡¡this¡¡data¡¡went¡¡
largely¡¡unnoticed£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡consequences¡¡were¡¡not¡¡just¡¡academic¡£¡¡This¡¡loss¡¡
of¡¡history¡¡has¡¡resulted¡¡in¡¡the¡¡spread¡¡of¡¡influential¡¡theories¡¡based¡¡on¡¡illinformed¡¡
understandings¡¡of¡¡the¡¡past¡£¡¡For¡¡example¡¯£»¡¡Jones¡¡continues£»¡¡¡®current¡¡
accepted¡¡advice¡¡is¡¡that¡¡wealth¡¡and¡¡growth¡¡will¡¡e¡¡to¡¡countries¡¡that¡¡open¡¡
their¡¡borders¡¡to¡¡foreign¡¡direct¡¡investment¡£¡¡The¡¡historical¡¡evidence¡¡shows¡¡
clearly¡¡that¡¡this¡¡is¡¡an¡¡article¡¡of¡¡faith¡¡rather¡¡than¡¡proven¡¡by¡¡the¡¡historical¡¡
evidence¡¡of¡¡the¡¡past¡£¡¯¡¡
HOW¡¡BUSINESS¡¡HISTORY¡¡IS¡¡STUDIED¡¡IN¡¡
BUSINESS¡¡SCHOOLS¡¡
If¡¡you¡¡had¡¡taken¡¡your¡¡MBA¡¡before¡¡2000¡¡you¡¡would¡¡have¡¡been¡¡unlikely¡¡to¡¡
find¡¡business¡¡history¡¡on¡¡the¡¡curriculum¡¡anywhere¡¡outside¡¡of¡¡the¡¡top¡¡dozen¡¡
or¡¡so¡¡business¡¡schools¡£¡¡The¡¡subject£»¡¡however£»¡¡is¡¡fast¡¡being¡¡mainstream¡£¡¡
Even¡¡parative¡¡newers¡¡are¡¡embracing¡¡the¡¡subject¡£¡¡Reading¡¡Business¡¡
School£»¡¡for¡¡example£»¡¡set¡¡up¡¡its¡¡Centre¡¡for¡¡International¡¡Business¡¡History¡¡
£¨CIBH£©¡¡in¡¡1997£»¡¡Cardiff¡¡has¡¡established¡¡an¡¡Accounting¡¡and¡¡Business¡¡History¡¡
Research¡¡Group¡¡£¨ABHRG£©¡¡and¡¡the¡¡Copenhagen¡¡Business¡¡School¡¯s¡¡Centre¡¡
for¡¡Business¡¡History£»¡¡established¡¡in¡¡1999£»¡¡is¡¡undertaking¡¡a¡¡long¡term¡¡study¡¡
into¡¡the¡¡nature¡¡and¡¡consequences¡¡of¡¡banking¡¡crises¡£¡¡The¡¡past¡¡few¡¡years¡¡
should¡¡give¡¡them¡¡plenty¡¡of¡¡material¡¡to¡¡work¡¡on£¡¡¡
Business¡¡history¡¡as¡¡taught¡¡in¡¡business¡¡schools¡¡has¡¡no¡¡single¡¡unified¡¡body¡¡
of¡¡knowledge¡¡in¡¡the¡¡manner¡¡in¡¡which£»¡¡say£»¡¡accounting£»¡¡marketing¡¡or¡¡organizational¡¡
behaviour¡¡has¡£¡¡It¡¡would¡¡be¡¡impossible¡¡to¡¡study¡¡accounting¡¡without¡¡
covering¡¡the¡¡principles¡¡underpinning¡¡the¡¡key¡¡financial¡¡reports¡¡and¡¡how¡¡
to¡¡interpret¡¡financial¡¡information¡£¡¡While¡¡there¡¡may¡¡well¡¡be¡¡some¡¡unique¡¡
content¡¡in¡¡specialized¡¡electives£»¡¡say¡¡on¡¡Financial¡¡Analysis¡¡of¡¡Mergers£»¡¡
Acquisitions¡¡and¡¡Other¡¡plex¡¡Corporate¡¡Restructurings¡¡taught¡¡at¡¡the¡¡
London¡¡Business¡¡School£»¡¡or¡¡Dealing¡¡with¡¡Financial¡¡Crime¡¡on¡¡offer¡¡at¡¡Cass¡¡
Business¡¡School£»¡¡the¡¡core¡¡accounting¡¡syllabus¡¡in¡¡all¡¡business¡¡schools¡¡is¡¡near¡¡
identical¡¡¨C¡¡though¡¡the¡¡way¡¡in¡¡which¡¡it¡¡is¡¡taught¡¡may¡¡not¡¡be¡£¡¡
History¡¡is¡¡taught¡¡in¡¡school¡¡and¡¡university¡¡in¡¡eras¡¡or¡¡themes£º¡¡the¡¡Tudors£»¡¡
the¡¡Renaissance£»¡¡the¡¡European¡¡World£»¡¡for¡¡example¡£¡¡In¡¡one¡¡of¡¡the¡¡premier¡¡
UK¡¡university¡¡history¡¡departments¡¡nothing¡¡much¡¡is¡¡covered¡¡a¡£¡£er¡¡1720£»¡¡
while¡¡at¡¡Harvard¡¡Business¡¡School¡¡nothing¡¡much¡¡before¡¡1820¡¡is¡¡included¡¡
in¡¡the¡¡syllabus£¡¡¡At¡¡Copenhagen¡¡MBA¡¡students¡¡may¡¡have¡¡a¡¡thorough¡¡grasp¡¡
of¡¡Norwegian£»¡¡Swedish¡¡and¡¡Danish¡¡banking¡¡in¡¡the¡¡interwar¡¡years¡¡without¡¡
164¡¡The¡¡Thirty¡Day¡¡MBA¡¡
even¡¡a¡¡passing¡¡reference¡¡to¡¡the¡¡Industrial¡¡Revolution£»¡¡mercantilism¡¡or¡¡the¡¡
development¡¡of¡¡the¡¡great¡¡family¡¡business¡¡dynasties¡£¡¡It¡¡is¡¡just¡¡that¡¡the¡¡subject¡¡
is¡¡too¡¡vast¡¡to¡¡be¡¡covered¡¡in¡¡a¡¡meaningful¡¡way¡¡except¡¡by¡¡narrowing¡¡down¡¡
the¡¡range¡£¡¡Business¡¡history¡¡is¡¡taught¡¡eclectically¡¡and¡¡MBAs¡¡swapping¡¡notes¡¡
on¡¡their¡¡experiences¡¡of¡¡Business¡¡History¡¡may¡¡find¡¡very¡¡li¡£¡£le¡¡in¡¡mon¡£¡¡
Here£»¡¡a¡¡broad¡¡sweep¡¡of¡¡the¡¡subject¡¡is¡¡taken£»¡¡providing¡¡snapshots¡¡of¡¡
important¡¡milestones¡¡on¡¡ma¡£¡£ers¡¡of¡¡enduring¡¡significance¡¡to¡¡business¡£¡¡The¡¡
content¡¡is¡¡divided¡¡into¡¡three¡¡eras¡¡that¡¡are¡¡to¡¡some¡¡extent¡¡homogeneous£»¡¡
though¡¡the¡¡time¡¡periods¡¡covered¡¡in¡¡each¡¡are¡¡very¡¡differe