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have been jumbled together in the middle to net off the current assets 
and current liabilities and so end up with a figure for the working capital。 
‘Current’ in accounting means within the trading cycle; usually taken to be 
one year。 Stock will be used up and debtors will pay up within the year; 
and overdra。。 being repayable on demand also appears as a short…term 
liability。 
There are a number of other items not shown in the working capital 
section of the example balance sheet that should appear; such as liability 
for tax and VAT that have not yet been paid; and these should appear as 
current liabilities。 
Intangible fixed assets 
There are a number of seemingly invisible items that nevertheless have 
been acquired for a measurable money cost and so have to be accounted for: 
。 Goodwill: This is where the price paid for an asset is above its fair 
market price。 This is fairly mon in the case of acquisitions where 
petition for a pany can push prices higher。 
。 Intellectual property such as patents; copyright; designs and logos。 
These items too are amortized over their working life。 So; for example; if a 
patent is considered to have a 10…year life and cost £1 million to acquire; it 
would be wri。。en down in the accounts by £100;000 a year。 
Liverpool Football Club’s accounts (Table 1。9) show how a particular 
type of ‘intellectual’ property is dealt with。 In this case it is footballers 
being contracted in and out of the club。 The same principles apply to any 
intangible asset。 
The costs associated with the acquisition of players’ registrations are 
capitalized as intangible fixed assets。 These costs are fully amortized in 
equal instalments over the period of players’ initial contracts。 Where a 
player’s contract is extended beyond its initial period; amortization is 
calculated over the period of the extended contract from the date on which 
it is signed。 Players’ registrations are wri。。en down for impairment when 
the carrying amount exceeds the amount recoverable through use or sale。 
Accounting for stock 
Deciding on the stock figure to put into a balance sheet is a tricky calculation。 
Theoretically it is simple; a。。er all; you know what you paid for 
it。 The rule that stock should be entered in the balance sheet at cost or 
Accounting 35 
market…price; whichever is the lower; is also not too difficult to follow。 But 
in the real world a business keeps on buying in stock so it has product to 
sell; and the cost can vary every time a purchase is made。 
Take the example of a business selling a breakfast cereal。 Four pallets 
of cereal are bought in from various suppliers at prices of £1;000; £1;020; 
£1;040 and £1;060 respectively; a total of £4;120。 At the end of the period 
three pallets have been sold; so logically the cost of goods sold in the profit 
and loss account will show a figure of £3;060 (£1;000 + £1;020 + £1;040)。 The 
last pallet costing £1;060 will be the figure to put into the balance sheet; 
thus ensuring that all £4;120 of total costs are accounted for。 
This method of dealing with stock is known as FIFO (first in first out); 
for obvious reasons。 There are two other popular costing methods that 
have their own merits。 LIFO (last in first out) is based on the argument that 
Table 1。9 Part of the balance sheet for Liverpool Football Club and Athletic 
Grounds Plc 
2006 2005 
£’000 £’000 
Fixed assets 
Intangible assets (see note 10) 81;350 80;105 
Tangible assets 34;947 36;811 
Investments 3 3 
Total 116;300 116;919 
Note 10。 Intangible fixed assets 
Cost 
At 1 August 2005 134;706 
Additions in year 41;753 
Disposals in year (36;868) 
At 31 July 2006 139;591 
Amortisation 
At 1 August 2005 54;601 
Charge for year 24;636 
Impairments in year 5;250 
Disposals in year (26;246) 
At 31 July 2006 58;241 
Net book amount 
At 31 July 2006 81;350 
At 31 July 2005 80;105
36 The Thirty…Day MBA 
if you are staying in business you will have to keep on replacing stock at 
the latest (higher) price; so you might just as well get used to that sooner 
by accounting for it in your profit and loss account。 In this case the cost of 
goods sold would be £3;120 (£1;060 + £1;040 + £1;020); rather than the £3;060 
that FIFO produces。 
The third popular costing method is the average cost method; which 
does what it says on the box。 In the above example this would produce 
a cost midway between those obtained by the other two methods; in this 
example £3;090。 
All these methods have their merits; but FIFO usually wins the argument 
as it acmodates the realities that prices rise steadily and goods move in 
and out of a business in the order in which they are bought。 It would be 
a very badly run grocer’s shop that sold its last delivery of cereal before 
clearing out its existing stocks。 
Methods of depreciation 
The depreciation is how we show the asset being ‘consumed’ over its 
working life。 It is simply a bookkeeping record to allow us to allocate some 
of the cost of an asset to the appropriate time period。 The time period will 
be determined by such factors as how long the working life of the asset is。 
The principal methods of depreciation used in business are: 
。 The straight…line method: This assumes that the asset will be ‘consumed’ 
evenly throughout its life。 If; for example; an asset is being bought for 
£1;200 and sold at the end of five years for £200; the amount of cost we 
have to write off is £1;000。 Using 20%; so that the whole 100% of cost is 
allocated; we can work out the ‘book value’ for each year。 
。 The declining…balance method: This works in a similar way; but instead 
of an even depreciation each year we assume the drop will be less。 
Some assets; motor vehicles for example; will reduce sharply in their 
first year and less so later on。 So at the end of year 1; both these methods 
of depreciation will result in a £200 fall; but in year 2 the picture starts 
to change。 The straight…line method takes a further fall of £200; while 
the declining…balance method reduces by 20% (our agreed depreciation 
rate) of £800 (the balance of £1;000 minus the £200 depreciation so far); 
which is £160。 
。 The sum of the digits method: This is more mon in the United 
States than in the UK。 While the declining…balance method applies a 
constant percentage to a declining figure; this method applies a progressively 
smaller percentage to the initial cost。 It involves adding up 
the individual numbers in the expected life span of the asset to arrive at 
the denominator of a fraction。 The numerator is year number concerned; 
but in reverse order。
Accounting 37 
For example; if our puter asset bought for £1;200 had an expected 
useful life of 5 years (unlikely); then the denominator in our sum would 
be 1+2+3+4+5 which equals 15。 In year 1 we would depreciate by 5/15 
times the initial purchase price of £1;200; which equals £400。 In year 2 
we would depreciate by 4/15ths and so on。 
These are just three of the most mon of many ways of depreciating 
fixed assets。 In choosing which method of depreciation to use; and in practice 
you may have to use different methods with different types of asset; it 
is useful to remember what you are trying to do。 You are aiming to allocate 
the cost of buying the asset as it should apply to each year of its working 
life。 
Balance sheet and other online tools 
SCORE (score 》 Business Tools 》 Template Gallery 》 Balance Sheet 
(projected)) is an Excel…based spreadsheet you can use for constructing 
your own balance sheet。 You can find guidance on depreciation; on 
handling stock and on the layout of the balance sheet and profit and loss 
account as required by the panies Act from the Accounting Standards 
Board (frc 》 ASB 》 Technical 》 FRSSE)。 Accounting Glossary 
(accountingglossary) and Accounting for Everyone ( 
accountingforeveryone 》 Accounting Glossary) have definitions of all 
the accounting terms you are ever likely to e across in the accounting 
world。 
Package of accounts 
The cash…flow statement; the profit and loss account and the balance sheet 
between them constitute a set of accounts; but conventionally two balance 
sheets; the opening and closing one; are provided to make a ‘package’。 
By including these balance sheets we can see the full picture of what has 
happened to the owner’s investment in the business。 
Table 1。10 shows a simplified package of accounts。 We can see from these; 
that over the year the business has made £600 of profit a。。er tax; and has 
invested that profit in £200 of additional fixed assets and £400 of working 
capital such as stock and debtors; balancing that off with the £600 put into 
reserves from the year’s profits。 
FILING ACCOUNTS 
A pany’s financial affairs are in the public domain。 As well as keeping 
HM Revenue and Customs (HMCR) informed; panies have to file 
Table 1。10 A package of accounts 
Balance sheet at 31 Dec 2009 P & L for year to 31 Dec 2010 Balance sheet at 2010 
£’s £’s £’s 
Fixed assets 1;000 Sales 10;000 Fixed assets 1;200 
Working capital 1;000 less cost of sales 6;000 Working capital 1;400 
2;000 Gross profit 4;000 2;600 
less expenses 3;000 
Financed by Profit before tax 1;000 Financed by 
Owners’ equity 2;000 Tax 400 Owners’ equity 2;000 
Profit a。。er tax 600 Reserves 600 
2;600
Accounting 39 
their accounts with panies House (wwwpanieshouse。gov。uk/ 
about/gbhtml/gb3。shtml)。 Accounts should be filed within 10 months of 
the pany’s financial year…end。 Small businesses (turnover below £5。6 
million) can file abbreviated accounts that include only very limited balance 
sheet and profit and loss account information and these do not need to be 
audited。 Businesses can be fined up to £1;000 for filing accounts late。 
You can find the report and accounts for all panies listed on UK 
stock markets at Free pany Report and Accounts (fcreports。 
)。 US pany accounts can be obtained from The Securities Exchange 
mission (sec。gov)。 The Investor Relations Society (irs。 
uk 》 IR Best Practice) makes an award each year to the pany producing 
the best set of report and accounts。 
FINANCIAL RATIOS 
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