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here；　any　non…astrophysical　sources　of　radio　emission　would　betoken　the　presence　of　life。　On　Earth　we　have　found　of　course　only　our　type；　but　many　other　types　would　have　been　detectable　elsewhere。　We　have　not　found　them。　This　examination　of　the　third　planet　strengthens　our　tentative　conclusion　that；　of　all　the　worlds　in　the　Solar　System；　only　ours　is　graced　by　life。

We　have　just　begun　to　search。　Maybe　life　is　hiding　on　Mars　or　Jupiter；　Europa　or　Titan。　Maybe　the　Galaxy　is　filled　with　worlds　as　rich　in　life　as　ours。　Maybe　we　are　on　the　verge　of　making　such　discoveries。　But　in　terms　of　actual　knowledge；　at　this　moment　the　Earth　is　unique。　No　other　world　is　yet　known　to　harbor　even　a　microbe；　much　less　a　technical　civilization。




CHAPTER　6　　　THE　TRIUMPH　OF　VOYAGER

　

　

They　that　go　down　to　the　sea　in　ships；　that　do　business　in　great　waters；

these　see　the　works　of　the　Lord；　and　his　wonders　in　the　deep。

—PSALMS；　107　（CA。　150　B。C）

The　visions　we　offer　our　children　shape　the　future。　It　matters　what　those　visions　are。　Often　they　bee　self…fulfilling　prophecies。　Dreams　are　maps。

I　do　not　think　it　irresponsible　to　portray　even　the　direst　futures；　if　we　are　to　avoid　them；　we　must　understand　that　they　are　possible。　But　where　are　the　alternatives？　Where　are　the　dreams　that　motivate　and　inspire？　We　long　for　realistic　maps　of　a　world　we　can　be　proud　to　give　to　our　children。　Where　are　the　cartographers　of　human　purpose？　Where　are　the　visions　of　hopeful　futures；　of　technology　as　a　tool　for　human　betterment　and　not　a　gun　on　hair　trigger　pointed　at　our　heads？

NASA；　in　its　ordinary　course　of　doing　business；　offers　such　a　vision。　But　in　the　late　1980s　and　early　'90s；　many　people　saw　the　U。S。　space　program　as；　instead；　a　succession　of　catastrophes—seven　brave　Americans　killed　on　a　mission　whose　main　function　was　to　put　up　a　munications　satellite　that　could　have　been　launched　at　less　cost　without　risking　anybody；　a　billion…dollar　telescope　sent　up　with　a　bad　case　of　myopia；　a　spacecraft　to　Jupiter　whose　main　antenna—essential　for　returning　data　to　Earth—did　not　unfurl；　a　probe　lost　just　as　it　was　about　to　orbit　Mars。　Some　people　cringe　every　time　NASA　describes　as　exploration　sending　a　few　astronauts　200　miles　up　in　a　small　capsule　that　endlessly　circles　the　Earth　and　goes　nowhere。　pared　to　the　brilliant　achievements　of　robotic　missions；　it　is　striking　how　rarely　fundamental　scientific　findings　emerge　from　manned　missions。　Except　for　repairing　ineptly　manufactured　or　malfunctioning　satellites；　or　launching　a　satellite　that　could　just　as　well　have　been　sent　up　in　an　unmanned　booster；　the　manned　program　has；　since　the　1970s；　seemed　unable　to　generate　acplishments　mensurate　with　the　cost。　Others　looked　at　NASA　as　a　stalking　horse　for　grandiose　schemes　to　put　weapons　into　space；　despite　the　fact　that　an　orbiting　weapon　is　in　many　circumstances　a　sitting　duck。　And　NASA　showed　many　symptoms　of　an　aging；　arteriosclerotic；　overcautious；　unadventurous　bureaucracy。　The　trend　is　perhaps　beginning　to　be　reversed。

But　these　criticisms—many　of　them　surely　valid—should　not　blind　us　to　NASA　triumphs　in　the　same　period：　the　first　exploration　of　the　Uranus　and　Neptune　systems；　the　in…orbit　repair　of　the　Hubble　space　telescope；　the　proof　that　the　existence　of　galaxies　is　patible　with　the　Big　Bang；　the　first　close…up　observations　of　asteroids；　mapping　Venus　pole　to　pole；　monitoring　ozone　depletion；　demonstrating　the　existence　of　a　black　hole　with　the　mass　of　a　billion　suns　at　the　center　of　a　nearby　galaxy；　and　a　historic　mitment　to　joint　space　endeavors　by　the　U。S。　and　Russia。

There　are　far…reaching；　visionary；　and　even　revolutionary　implications　to　the　space　program。　munications　satellites　link　up　the　planet；　are　central　to　the　global　economy；　and；　through　television；　routinely　convey　the　essential　fact　that　We　live　in　a　global　munity。　Meteorological　satellites　predict　the　weather；　save　lives　in　hurricanes　and　tornados；　and　avoid　many　billions　of　dollars　in　crop　losses　every　year。　Military…reconnaissance　and　treaty…verification　satellites　make　nations　and　the　global　civilization　more　secure；　in　a　world　with　tens　of　thousands　of　nuclear　weapons；　they　calm　the　hotheads　and　paranoids　on　all　sides；　they　are　essential　tools　for　survival　on　a　troubled　and　unpredictable　planet。

Earth…observing　satellites；　especially　a　new　generation　soon　to　be　deployed；　monitor　the　health　of　the　global　environment：　greenhouse　warming；　topsoil　erosion；　ozone　layer　depletion；　ocean　currents；　acid　rain；　the　effects　of　floods　and　droughts；　and　new　dangers　we　haven't　yet　discovered。　This　is　straightforward　planetary　hygiene。

Global　positioning　systems　are　now　in　place　so　that　your　locale　is　radio…triangulated　by　several　satellites。　Holding　a　small　instrument　the　size　of　a　modern　shortwave　radio；　you　can　read　out　to　high　precision　your　latitude　and　longitude。　No　crashed　airplane；　no　ship　in　fog　and　shoals；　no　driver　in　an　unfamiliar　city　need　ever　be　lost　again。

Astronomical　satellites　peering　outward　from　Earth's　orbit　observe　with　unsurpassed　clarity—studying　questions　ranging　from　the　possible　existence　of　planets　around　nearby　stars　to　the　origin　and　fate　of　the　Universe。　Planetary　probes　from　close　range　explore　the　gorgeous　array　of　other　worlds　in　our　solar　system　paring　their　fates　with　ours。

All　of　these　activities　are　forward…looking；　hopeful；　stirring　and　cost…effective。　None　of　them　requires　〃manned〃*　spaceflight。　A　key　issue　facing　the　future　of　NASA　and　addressed　in　this　book　is　whether　the　purported　justifications　for　human　spaceflight　are　coherent　and　sustainable。　Is　it　worth　the　cost？

*　Since　women　astronauts　and　cosmonauts　of　several　nations　have　flown　in　space；　〃manned〃　is　just　flat…out　incorrect。　I've　attempted　to　find　an　alternative　to　this　widely　used　term；　coined　in　a　more　unselfconsciously　sexist　age。　I　tried　〃crewed〃　for　a　while；　but　in　spoken　language　it　lends　itself　to　misunderstanding。　〃Piloted〃　doesn't　work；　because　even　mercial　airplanes　have　robot　pilots。　〃Manned　and　womanned〃　is　just；　but　unwieldy。　Perhaps　the　best　promise　is　〃human；〃　which　permits　us　to　distinguish　crisply　between　human　and　robotic　missions。　But　every　now　and　then；　1　find　〃human〃　not　quite　working；　and　to　my　dismay　〃manned〃　slips　back　in。

But　first；　let's　consider　the　visions　of　a　hopeful　future　vouchsafed　by　robot　spacecraft　out　among　the　planets。



VOYAGER　1　AND　VOYAGER　2　are　the　ships　that　opened　the　Solar　System　for　the　human　species；　trailblazing　a　path　for　future　generations。　Before　their　launch；　in　August　and　September　1977；　we　were　almost　wholly　ignorant　about　most　of　the　planetary　part　of　the　Solar　System。　In　the　next　dozen　years；　they　provided　our　first　detailed；　close…up　information　on　many　new　worlds—some　of　them　previously　known　only　as　fuzzy　disks　in　the　eyepieces　of　ground…based　telescopes；　some　merely　as　points　of　light；　and　some　whose　very　existence　was　unsuspected。　They　are　still　returning　reams　of　data。

These　spacecraft　have　taught　us　about　the　wonders　of　other　worlds；　about　the　uniqueness　and　fragility　of　our　own；　about　beginnings　and　ends。　They　have　given　us　access　to　most　of　the　Solar　System—both　in　extent　and　in　mass。　They　are　the　ships　that　first　explored　what　may　be　homelands　of　our　remote　descendants。

U。S。　launch　vehicles　are　these　days　too　feeble　to　get　such　a　spacecraft　to　Jupiter　and　beyond　in　only　a　few　years　by　rocket　propulsion　alone。　But　if　we're　clever　（and　lucky）；　there's　something　else　we　can　do：　We　can　（as　Galileo　also　did；　years　later）　fly　close　to　one　world；　and　have　its　gravity　fling　us　on　to　the　next。　A　gravity　assist；　it's　called。　It　costs　us　almost　nothing　but　ingenuity。　lt's　something　like　grabbing　hold　of　a　post　on　a　moving　merry…go…round　as　it　passes—to　speed　you　up　and　fling　you　in　some　new　direction。　The　spacecraft's　acceleration　is　pensated　for　by　a　deceleration　in　the　planet's　orbital　motion　around　the　Sun。　But　because　the　planet　is　so　massive　pared　to　the　spacecraft；　it　slows　down　hardly　at　all。　Each　Voyager　spacecraft　picked　up　a　velocity　boost　of　nearly　40；000　miles　per　hour　from　Jupiter's　gravity。　Jupiter　in　turn　was　slowed　down　in　its　motion　around　the　Sun。　By　how　much？　Five　billion　years　from　now；　when　our　Sun　bees　a　swollen　red　giant；　Jupiter　will　be　one　millimeter　short　of　where　it　would　have　been　had　Voyager　not　flown　by　it　in　the　late　twentieth　century。

Voyager　2　took　advantage　of　a　rare　lining…up　of　the　planets：　A　close　flyby　of　Jupiter　accelerated　it　on　to　Saturn；　Saturn　to　Uranus；　Uranus　to　Neptune；　and　Neptune　to　the　stars。　But　you　can't　do　this　anytime　you　like：　The　previous　opportunity　for　such　a　game　of　celestial　billiards　presented　itself　during　the　presidency　of　Thomas　Jefferson。　We　were　then　only　at　the　horseback；　canoe；　and　sailing　ship　stage　of　exploration。　（Steamboats　were　the　transforming　new　technology　just　around　the　corner。）

Since　adequate　funds　were　unavailable；　NASA's　Jet　Propulsion　Laboratory　（JPL）　could　afford　to　build　spacecraft　that　would　work　reliably　only　as　far　as　Saturn。　Beyond　that；　all　bets　were　off。　However；　because　of　the　brilliance　of　the　engineering　design　and　the　fact　that　the　JPL　engineers　who　radioed　instructions　up　to　the　spacecraft　got　smarter　faster　than　the　spacecraft　got　stupid—both　spacecraft　went　on　to　explore　Uranus　and　Neptune。　These　days　they　are　broadcasting　back　discoveries　from　beyond　the　most　distant　known　planet　of　the　Sun。

We　tend　to　hear　much　more　about　the　splendors　returned　than　the　ships　that　brought　them；　or　the　shipwrights。　It　has　al；　ways　been　that　way。　Even　those　history　books　enamored　of　the　voyages　of　Christopher　Columbus　do　not　tell　us　much　about　the　builders　of　the　Nina；　the　Pinta；　and　the　Santa　Maria；　or　about　the　principle　of　the　caravel。　These　spacecraft；　their　designers；　builders；　navigators；　and　controllers　are　examples　of　what　science　and　engineering；　set　free　for　well…defined　peaceful　purposes；　can　acplish。　Those　scientists　and　engineers　should　be　role　models　for　an　America　seeking　excellence　and　international　petitiveness。　They　should　be　on　our　stamps。

At　each　of　the　four　giant　planets—Jupiter；　Saturn；　Uranus；　and　Neptune—one　or　both　spacecraft　studied　the　planet　itself；　its　rings；　and　its　mo